Fujian: From Sky to Sea, How Far Can It Go?
Fujian is one of China's most complex and fascinating provinces.
People perform dragon dances inside tulou (earthen buildings) to celebrate the harvest.
With an adventurous spirit to explore the world, Fujian’s coastline has witnessed the voyages of the Austronesian peoples, the Maritime Silk Road, Zheng He’s seven expeditions… and even the massive waves of modern emigration.
During the Lantern Festival, the "Walking Wang" ritual is performed.
People carry the statue of Li Boyao, one of the six great generals under the Sacred Prince of Zhangzhou.
Fujian preserves the Central Plains traditions brought by the southward migration of Han Chinese. "Faith" and "deities" are almost its most influential local specialties—its temples are filled with incense smoke, making it the most "conservative" region in terms of cultural concepts and folk traditions.
The Buddhist temple atop Lingtong Mountain in Zhangzhou is exceptionally serene at night.
Fujian is bold, hardworking, and innovative. Its GDP ranking rose from 23rd in China in 1978 to 8th in 2021, making it the province with the fastest economic growth and the greatest improvement in ranking.
Administrative map of Fujian, which faces Taiwan across the sea.
Perhaps where there is the sea, there is Mazu; where there are restaurants, there is Shaxian; where there are cities, there are Ningde batteries; where there are roads, there are Jinjiang and Putian shoes; and where there are Chinese people, there are Fujian porcelain and tea.
During the Yuan dynasty, Quanzhou residents used stone pagodas to guide ships entering and leaving the port.
The photo shows the Liúsèng Pagoda, a navigation tower in the main channel of Quanzhou Bay at that time.
Photo by Zhang Zichang, from "Authentic Fujian · Southern Min Culture".
Fujian’s approach is "wildly ambitious": high-speed railways are planned to reach Taiwan, glass is sold to the United States, and snack shops are opened worldwide.
The Pingtan Strait Road-Rail Bridge winds across the strait,
and will be a key part of the future Beijing-Taipei railway corridor.
The people of Fujian have created migration miracles, expanded commercial territories, and preserved cultural memory—relying on their "yābà" (awesome) strength, their "fear-not" mentality, and their belief that "daring to strive leads to victory."
It can be said that Fujian represents China’s ultimate "fighting spirit."
Fujian is bordered by mountains on one side and the sea on the other.
Over 80% of Fujian’s terrain consists of mountains and hills, making it one of China’s provinces with the least plains. It is often described as "80% mountains, 10% water, and 10% farmland." The western mountain range, dominated by the Wuyi Mountains, and the central range, comprising the Jiufeng and Daiyun Mountains, form layered barriers protecting Fujian.
The mist and clouds enveloping Mount Wuyi make it a representative landscape of Fujian's mountains and waters.
Meanwhile, the Minjiang, Jiulongjiang, and Jinjiang river systems serve as vital channels connecting the inland to the coastal regions, forming Fujian's four major alluvial plains along the coast: the Zhangzhou Plain, Fuzhou Plain, Quanzhou Plain, and Xinghua Plain.
A schematic diagram of Fujian's topography shows its numerous mountainous areas.
Two major mountain ranges divide Fujian's terrain into many isolated small units. These relatively enclosed basins and valleys made land transportation as challenging as the ancient roads of Sichuan. Yet, this very isolation made Fujian an ideal refuge.
Mount Wuyi is a typical example of Danxia landform.
During the Yongjia Rebellion of the Western Jin Dynasty, eight prominent families migrated to Fujian, shaping the basic demographic composition of the province. Even today, the saying "Chen and Lin make up half of Fujian" reflects how these two largest local surnames still account for 21% of the population.
Nanping is Fujian's largest city by area, while Quanzhou has the largest population.
Massive immigration led to increasingly strained human-land relations, driving Fujianese to turn to the sea for development.
Fujianese are skilled at navigating rivers and seas—within the predominantly continental Chinese civilization, Fujian stands out as a distinct "blue ocean anomaly," full of exploration and adventure.
Quanzhou is a major global center for the spread of Mazu belief.
A colored painting from the Qing Dynasty, "Miracles of Mazu," now housed in the Rijksmuseum, Netherlands.
Image courtesy of Xu Lu, selected from *Authentic Fengwu: Southern Fujian*.
The Keqiutou Site, discovered on Haitan Island and dating back 7500-5500 years, marks the beginning of Fujianese maritime exploration, eventually contributing to the Austronesian expansion across half the globe.
Fujian boasts a mainland coastline of 3,752 km and 2,214 islands, ranking second among China's provinces. Its coastline is dotted with 125 bays of various sizes, making it ideal for building deep-water ports.
Xiangzhi Port in Quanzhou remains densely packed with boats to this day.
As early as the Song and Yuan dynasties, Fujian's coast was China's most prosperous region for maritime trade. The Maritime Silk Road rapidly turned Quanzhou and Fuzhou into major Eastern ports, with Quanzhou becoming a "world religious museum" hosting Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Manichaeism.
Numerous stone carvings reflecting religious elements from around the world have been unearthed in Quanzhou.
Image selected from *Authentic Fengwu: Southern Fujian*.
During the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He, a native of Kunming, waited here for favorable winds to embark on his voyages, pioneering China's great era of navigation with his seven expeditions to the Western Oceans. Fujian's "Fuchuan" ships represented the world's most advanced shipbuilding technology at the time.
Many adventurous Fujianese went on to create one of China's primary hometowns for overseas Chinese. To this day, over 15 million Fujianese diaspora live across 176 countries, accounting for 40% of Fujian's total population—the highest proportion in China.
"Overseas Chinese Remittance Letters" served as a medium connecting hardworking Minnan people abroad with their families and friends back home.
In 2013, "Overseas Chinese Remittance Letters of China" were inscribed into the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.
Photo by Chen Linhao, from *Authentic Geography · Minnan*.
A large number of overseas immigrants never forgot their roots and became an important economic source contributing to their hometown's development: Xiamen University was the first university in modern Chinese history founded by overseas Chinese, and Fujian’s first railway, the Zhangxia Railway, was also initiated by overseas Chinese.
Xiamen University is known as one of the most beautiful universities in China. Pictured is the Xiamen University Library.
Where there are mountains and seas, there is a home for the people of Fujian, but Fujian will always remain their unforgettable homeland.
The relatively isolated geographical environment has given Fujian a diverse character.
Eastern Fujian is like the heart of the province, gathering generations of notable figures and becoming one of the pioneers in exploring China's modernization; Southern Fujian is the most economically active region, with its people striving for over a thousand years to develop world-class ports and top-ranking counties;
Xiamen Guankou Fengshan Temple, where two massive temple doors separate the mortal world from the sacred.
Photo by Zhang Heyan, from *Authentic Geography · Minnan*.
Central Fujian, represented by Putian and Xianyou, not only has a vibrant private economy but also celebrates the Lantern Festival like a "carnival"; Northern Fujian, represented by Nanping, is home to both Fujian’s landmark Wuyi Mountain and the source of the Min River, the province’s mother river; Western Fujian is the ancestral home of Hakka people worldwide and has contributed the national fast food—Shaxian snacks—to China.
Eastern Fujian: The Heartland and Pioneer of China’s Modernization
Is Eastern Fujian too low-key and平淡 these days?
Fuzhou Wuliting Overpass, a beauty of modern construction.
Fuzhou may be one of China’s provincial capitals with little "presence": within Fujian, it faces competition from Xiamen—a higher-level sub-provincial city politically, Quanzhou—an economic star, and world heritage sites like tulou and Wuyi Mountain in tourism.
But Fuzhou is striving to rebuild its core status in the West Taiwan Strait Economic Zone. Fuqing and Minhou are both among China’s top 100 counties by economy. In 2020, Fuzhou’s GDP reached the trillion-yuan mark simultaneously with Quanzhou, and in 2021, it surpassed Quanzhou to become Fujian’s largest economy.
The Pingtan Strait Road-Rail Bridge, spanning 16.3 km, is the world’s longest cross-sea road-rail bridge.
The small Haitan Island has already established the Pingtan Comprehensive Experimental Zone, which will become a bridgehead for the future Beijing-Taipei High-Speed Railway.
Even Ningde, once relatively unnoticed, has created its own CATL (Contemporary Amperex Technology Co. Limited) in the capital market, becoming a strong player in the global new energy vehicle components sector.
Fujian Ningde SAIC Motor City, with the yard filled with new energy vehicles.
Moreover, it is Eastern Fujian, represented by Fuzhou, that is the heart of Fujian Province.
Fuzhou is located at the estuary of the Min River, Fujian's largest river, and has historically served as a bridgehead for the central plains' governance of Fujian. During the Qin Dynasty, the Minzhong Commandery was established—the first administrative division in Fujian's history—with its seat located in the Yie Hill area of Fuzhou. Later, when Wuzhu established the Minyue Kingdom, the capital remained in Fuzhou.
As a historically significant city in Fujian, Fuzhou boasts numerous ancient architectural relics.
Hand-drawn / Li Qianlang, Mapping / Wu Jiuyang
Eastern Fujian is also the earliest developed region in Fujian. Historically, Fuzhou was a renowned major city in the southeast. The Three Lanes and Seven Alleys within the city inherit the legacy of the Jin and Tang dynasties and represent the best-preserved ancient block system in China, earning the title of "urban living fossil."
After the Opium War, Fujian accounted for two of the "Five Treaty Ports," becoming one of the earliest regions to "open its eyes to the world." Western sailors even referred to the Mawei Luoxing Pagoda directly as the "China Tower."
An aerial view of Fuzhou's Three Lanes and Seven Alleys—a "pure land" within the urban forest.
Moreover, the region’s long-established shipbuilding industry bore fruit in modern times: in 1866, Zuo Zongtang established the Fuzhou Shipyard, China's first modern shipyard, which became a pioneer in the development of the Chinese navy and shipbuilding industry.
Fujian took the lead in embracing modern trends, becoming a hub of progressive thought and culture. From its ancient lanes and alleys emerged figures such as Lin Zexu, Shen Baozhen, Yan Fu, Lin Juemin, and Bing Xin, who became pioneers in exploring China's modernization.
Many former residences of famous figures are preserved within Fuzhou's Three Lanes and Seven Alleys.
Mapping / Wu Jiuyang, paprika
The towns of Chendai and Chidian, near the estuary of the Jinjiang River (Quanzhou Bay), have a bright future ahead.
Quanzhou alone is home to four of China's top 100 counties by economic strength: Jinjiang, Shishi, Hui'an, and Nan'an. Even Yongchun County, which ranks lower economically within Quanzhou, had a per capita GDP exceeding 100,000 yuan in 2021, surpassing that of major cities in western China.
Jinjiang, a standout in county-level economies, recorded a GDP of over 290 billion yuan in 2021, ranking among the top five county-level cities in China.
Jinjiang might be the county-level city with the most titles in China.
Mapping / Wu Jiuyang, monk
Jinjiang has given birth to numerous outstanding brands such as Anta, Hongxing Erke, 361 Degrees, Peak, Septwolves, and Panpan, making it a dominant force in China's sporting goods industry.
Jinjiang's apparel companies have almost monopolized the wardrobes of Chinese people when it comes to sportswear and casual wear.
Mapping / Wu Jiuyang, Lin Junming, Jin Chan
Not only in terms of economy, but if one were to choose the cultural region that best represents Fujian, Southern Fujian would undoubtedly be the one.
With two major river systems, the Jinjiang and Jiulongjiang, and home to the Zhangzhou and Quanzhou plains, Southern Fujian is the region in Fujian with the most developed economy, the strongest cultural identity, and the most intense urban competition.
Gulangyu Island nearby and Xiamen Island in the distance echo each other from afar.
Quanzhou is known for its long history, rich culture, and developed private economy; Xiamen wins with its fresh, charming style and prosperous, modern urban appearance; Zhangzhou boasts a wide variety of snacks and an equally enchanting historic district.
These three cities each have their own strengths, but some traits are common—an ancient and developed tradition of maritime trade, as well as passionate and intricate folk festivals, form the shared foundation of Southern Fujian.
In Zhao'an, Zhangzhou, Fujian, people worship the Heaven in the early morning, offering prayers to the Jade Emperor.
Southern Fujian is where the Chinese set sail to pursue their "Ocean Dream."
Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, and Xiamen succeeded one another, creating a golden age of harbors. Anxi's tea and Dehua's white porcelain once set sail from Southern Fujian's major ports.
Starting from Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties, it opened up to a vast maritime world.
The uncertainty of "living by the sea" fostered a more vibrant folk religion. Praying to gods and consulting Buddhas are part of the daily life of Southern Fujian people, preserving China's strongest religious atmosphere and most fervent folk festivals.
"Buddha Blasting"—Southern Fujian's festivals or folk activities are always lively.
Even in traditions greatly weakened by the pandemic, the visually striking "Wang Ye Boat" ceremony (meaning "sending away the plague gods") remained popular. During the pandemic, people were even more eager to send away the "plague gods."
"Wang Ye Boat"—sending away misfortunes in the flames.
In Southern Fujian, "tradition" and "avant-garde" are a harmonious duality.
Here, there are traditional dwellings like red brick houses, as well as Sino-Western fusion buildings like "Fanzi Lou." Millions of immigrants braved the waves to seek livelihoods far from home, yet their lifelong wish was to return to their roots and contribute to their hometowns.
The Zeng Clan's Fanzi Lou in Dongmei Village, Jiaomei, Longhai.
In the past, Southern Fujian people referred to crossing the seas to make a living elsewhere as "Guo Fan" (venturing to foreign lands).
Those who "Guo Fan" returned to their hometowns as "Fanzi" (foreigners).
The Western-style buildings they constructed were called "Fanzi Lou" (foreign-style buildings).
How fantastical is the Putian-Xianyou Lantern Festival?
Sandwiched between several major cultural regions, the Putian-Xianyou area, centered on Putian and Xianyou, has a unique dialect, Puxianhua, and distinctive folk customs.
Jiangshan Village on the north shore, a tranquil beach with surging wealth.
Blessed with the Xinghua Plain, one of Fujian's four major plains, Putian is perhaps one of the most "Central Plains-like" regions in Fujian: its people built dikes, ponds, canals, and fields, transforming coastal saline wetlands into fertile land, creating one of China's oldest and greatest "reclaiming land from the sea" projects.
The cityscape of Putian under the sunset, with the Mulan River flowing through.
With this agricultural tradition, the people of Putian embarked on the imperial examination path, achieving the most remarkable success in Fujian despite having the smallest area: during the entire imperial examination era, Putian County (now downtown Putian) produced over 1,700 jinshi (imperial scholars), while Xianyou County produced over 700, making the Putian region the top in Fujian with more than 2,400 jinshi and 13 zhuangyuan (top scorers, including two military ones).
Not only that, the people of Putian also fully developed their skills in faith, folklore, and commerce, becoming the most fantastical presence in "Refreshing Fujian."
Meizhou fisherwoman Lin Mo, through a legendary evolution over a millennium, became the sea goddess for all Chinese people, receiving continuous imperial honors throughout dynasties, ultimately earning a lengthy title of 42 characters over 36 bestowals, making her one of China's most influential and widely spread faiths, with 6,000 Mazu temples and 200 million devotees worldwide.
The statue of Mazu and her guardian deities in the Tianhou Palace of Haicheng, Zhangzhou.
Photo by Zhang Lütang, selected from "Authentic Fengwu: Southern Fujian."
However, Putian's fantastical nature is not only due to it being the birthplace of Mazu worship but also because it is a stage for the flourishing of folk beliefs such as Marshal Tian Gong, Chen Wenlong, and Consort Mei.
Those who built canals and ponds, like Wu Xing, Qian Siniang, Lin Congshi, and Li Hong, were experts in water conservancy like the mythical Jingwei filling the sea during their lifetimes, and after death, they were enshrined as local deities guarding the land.
Ladies dressed in fine attire participating in Mazu's incense procession.
Indeed, Putian's most unique specialty is its abundance of deities and festive activities.
Becoming China's most fitting equivalent to "carnival,"
various grand, lively, and somewhat eerie狂热 celebrations
gradually unfold across the land of Putian.
Top: Lantern Festival procession; Bottom: Nine-Carp Dance.
In the main hall of Pukou Palace, tall orange towers are erected,
while in Hanjiang's Yanning Palace, tall sugarcane towers are built;
Pukou Palace with orange towers and Yanning Palace with sugarcane towers.
On the ninth day of the lunar new year, Pinghai City God Temple parades with deity statues.
From the 10th to the 14th of the lunar month, there is a grand procession of Mazu's golden statue touring for peace;
The "Palm Sedan Display" expresses the wish for "a prosperous and fiery new year."
On the 15th, lively Palm Sedan Displays and sparking iron-sand flowers welcome the deities;
On the 18th, Nanri Island hosts the unbelievable ritual of carrying deities and charging into the sea;
On the 19th, Puxi Ancient Town features the mysterious ritual of spirit mediums climbing blade ladders;
On the 24th, Xiajiangtou holds the bloodier ritual of spirit possession to invoke deities.
This grand, nearly month-long carnival culminates on the 29th of the first lunar month with the Mazu "Last Night Lantern" ceremony at Wenfeng Palace. This ancient and profound folk memory has always been part of Putian people's lives, with the New Year celebration and Lantern Festival being the most important moments of the year.
Putian is best known for its business tradition: 85% of China's private healthcare industry, nearly 70% of the timber market, 60% of the gold and jewelry industry, and one-third of oil painting exports are contributed by Putian businesspeople.
Wuyi Mountain is Fujian's backing mountain, the Min River is Fujian's mother river, and the core of northern Fujian is formed by Wuyi Mountain and the Min River.
Wuyi Mountain National Park is one of China's first national parks.
Mount Huanggang, at 2,160.8 meters above sea level, is the highest peak in southeastern China.
Northern Fujian is the origin of Fujian, not only in terms of landscape but also culturally: the name "Fujian" comes from Fuzhou and Jianzhou.
Nestled in the embrace of the Wuyi Mountains, northern Fujian has always been a place where people complain that "the roads in Fujian are even harder to travel than those in Sichuan."
The rugged mountains between the Central Plains and Fujian made travel difficult.
Historically, the main routes from the northern Central Plains into Fujian all passed through northern Fujian: one from Fuzhou via Shanguan to Shaowu, one from Yanshan via Fenshuiguan to Chong'an, and one from Jiangshan via Xianxiaguan to Pucheng.
These three ancient roads into Fujian all lead to the upper sources of the Min River: Shaowu has the Futun River, Chong'an has the Chongyang River, and Pucheng has the Nanpu River. After switching from land to water, one could reach the coastal basins and plains.
The Min River flows through Nanping and is Fujian's most important river.
Due to this geographical condition, northern Fujian was the first stop for Han culture entering Fujian.
The Han Dynasty City Ruins in Chengcun are the largest and best-preserved early Han Dynasty city ruins in southern China. The earliest county and prefecture establishments in Fujian's history are also related to northern Fujian.
The Han Dynasty City Ruins in Chengcun, Nanping, have been inscribed as a World Heritage Site.
Photo 1/VCG, Photo 2/LUKE
During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi, the greatest Confucian scholar of Fujian, lectured and established schools in northern Fujian, making Jianzhou the research center of Neo-Confucianism in the Southern Song Dynasty. It was said that "Min (Fujian) and Zhe (Zhejiang) have become the center of the world."
Despite the difficult transportation, people in northern Fujian were enthusiastic about building bridges and roads, delivering many Chinese specialties to the world—Wuyi Mountain's oolong tea, for example, traveled along the Ten-Thousand-Mile Tea Road to Kyakhta, from where it was resold to Europe.
The Wuyi Mountain region is also an important tea-producing area in China.
The black porcelain produced by the Jian Kiln was transported down the river, connecting to the Maritime Silk Road and sold to various countries. Jian Zhan (Jian teacup) was known as the "Number One Teacup of the Song Dynasty," and among them, the "Yohen Tenmoku Bowl" was particularly loved by the Japanese, regarded as a divine masterpiece—a "universe in a bowl."
The ancestral home of the global Hakka people is in western Fujian.
Western Fujian has the most enclosed geographical environment, with the Wuyi Mountains serving as the watershed of the Min River, Gan River, and Han River.
Chuxi Tulou Cluster, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Northern immigrants who came from the south found refuge in the deep mountains of Fujian after crossing mountains and ridges. Ninghua Shibi Village, located at the border of Fujian and Jiangxi, became the earliest distribution center for the Hakka people after entering Fujian.
The large number of immigrants also made western Fujian one of the regions with the most strained human-land relationships in Fujian.
The pinnacle of circular tulou is the famous "King of Tulou"—Eryi Lou.
Illustrated by Li Qianlang, Photo from "Authentic Fengwu: Southern Fujian," Mapped by Wu Jiuyang
As a result, the tulou and fortresses developed here became the most combat-effective and defensive residential architectures. Thick earthen walls, towering watchtowers, and dense shooting holes collectively formed a stern warning: "No Trespassing."
Anzhen Fort, one of the best-preserved ancient rammed earth buildings in Fujian Province.
The Hakka people who immigrated here never stopped moving. They continued to depart from western Fujian, not only migrating to Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, and Chongqing but also traveling as far as Nanyang (Southeast Asia) and the Western world. Shibi Village is known as the "Ancestral Land of the Hakka," becoming the spiritual homeland of 80 million Hakka people worldwide.
In Jinghou Village, Shaxian County, 82-year-old Guan Chunji dries radishes, dried vegetables, chili peppers, and other produce in his old house.
It was not only the Hakka people who were restless but also Shaxian snacks.
A financial crisis that swept through the small town of Shaxian in the 1990s led to its people fleeing to Fuzhou, Xiamen, and other places. This coincided with the strong demand for affordable and delicious fast food in the early stages of reform and opening-up. Within just a few years, the people of Shaxian, relying on a plate of mixed noodles and a bowl of flat wontons (Bianrou), opened Shaxian snack shops all over the country.
Mixed noodles and flat wontons are considered the golden duo of Shaxian snacks.
From ancient times to the modern era, the people of Fujian, with their backs to the "Land of the Eight Min" and facing the ocean, have exhibited exceptional "combat effectiveness."
Fujian is abbreviated as "Min" (闽). The "虫" (chong) in "Min" is interpreted by some as a tiger and by others as a large snake. In any case, these two highly combative and vital animals precisely reflect the local natural geographical environment and have become important spiritual totems in Fujian culture.
From a young age, people in Fujian have been filled with curiosity and love for the folk activities of their hometown.
The Austronesian people, paddling small boats, were able to occupy most of the Pacific Ocean; Zheng He's fleet sailed across the Indian Ocean to East Africa; Fujianese immigrants have traveled all over the world but never forget to inscribe the name of their homeland on the cover of their genealogy or carve it above their doors or on their tombstones.
No matter where they go, people from Fujian always cherish the houses, tiles, plants, and trees of their hometown.
The dual threads of history and geography have shaped Fujian into a fascinating blend of "conservatism" and "adventure." Behind this sense of chaos lies a common attribute of "combativeness": Fujianese people build their homes and uphold ancient traditions internally, while venturing out into the world externally, expanding a global commercial footprint.
In Changting, Fujian, people carry a statue of Guan Yu through the fields to celebrate spring.
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Text | LUKE, ZXZ
Article header image | City Shuttler
"Fujian Province Coastal Zone Protection and Utilization Plan (2016-2020),"
Fujian Provincial Development and Reform Commission, Fujian Provincial Ocean and Fisheries