How Astonishing Was China's Bronze Age?
(Bronze Sacred Tree, collection of Sanxingdui Museum, photographer: Zhang Yan)
(Fei Liang Handle You [wine vessel], collection of Suizhou Museum, photographer: Su Lihuan)
1,403,451 pieces (sets)
(The above data comes from the First National Survey of Movable Cultural Relics Bulletin, as of October 31, 2016; the image below shows the "Zilong" bronze ding, photographer: Liu Yedao, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
and then shaped China's youthful era
that magnificent Bronze Age
the tools available to human hands
were limited to stone, bone, wood, pottery, and a few other types
(Stone grinding slab and roller, belonging to the Peiligang Culture dating back 9,000-7,000 years, mainly used for grain husking and crushing, the earliest surviving set of grain processing tools in China, photographer: Liu Peng, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
this ore could change its shape
(The world's earliest copper artifacts were found in Turkey around 10,000 years ago; the image below shows copper drills and awls from China's Qijia Culture, made of pure copper, photographer: Liu Yedao, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
at higher temperatures it would melt and flow
after cooling it would form a specific shape
and if tin, lead, or other substances were added to copper
a completely new alloy was born
(Bronze knife, Majiayao Culture, the earliest copper-tin alloy artifact discovered in China to date, photographer: Qi, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
ancient people called it "jin" or "lucky metal"
truly a high-tech product of ancient times
while the artifacts we see today
copper interacting with water and minerals in the soil
A layer of green patina formed on the surface
(Zhì [wine vessel], through the uncorroded parts, the original colors from its time of use are clearly visible, photographer @ Vessel, graphic by @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
People from Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Europe
crafted weapons, ornaments, tools, and more
(Russian copper artifacts, photographer @ Vessel, graphic by @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
yet embarked on a completely different path
The concept of "China" was taking shape
but lacked the far-reaching feudal and centralized systems
As the first dynasty in Chinese history
it strived to establish ruling order across the Central Plains
(Rubbing of Yu the Great, image from Wu Family Shrine stone relief in Shandong, graphic by @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
was regarded by rulers as a crucial means to establish order
because rituals allowed communication with deities
Exquisite pottery like jué and gū
held fine wines offered to ancestral spirits
or served as symbols of status and rank
for nobles' daily life and ceremonial banquets
(Ceremonial pottery, unearthed at the Erlitou site, mainstream view identifies Erlitou culture as primarily Xia culture, photographers @ Liu Peng & Jun Zuoren, graphic by @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The emergence of scarce and intricately crafted bronze artifacts
naturally drew the rulers' attention
It must have better demonstrated status and pleased the deities
But early bronze casting techniques were relatively simple
Craftsmen would first carve the cavity shape of a knife into a clay block
Then pour high-temperature molten copper into it
(Schematic diagram of single-mold casting for bronze knives, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
This method could only produce some simple artifacts
We cannot know how many twists and turns the upgrade went through
But the Xia people ultimately achieved a technological breakthrough
First, using materials such as clay, wood, or stone
(Schematic of mold-making in piece-mold casting, patterns could also be carved on molds of appropriate hardness, which were fired into pottery for increased hardness, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
After solidification, they were peeled off section by section
Forming the mold (also called the outer mold)
(Schematic of mold formation in piece-mold casting, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
Then, fill the inner cavity of the model with clay
(Schematic of core-making in piece-mold casting, the core could also be formed by scraping the model to a certain thickness, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
Finally, assemble the outer mold and core together
And pour the smelted molten copper into it
A bronze vessel more complex than a bronze knife
(Schematic of casting and forming in piece-mold casting, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The origin of the term "model" used in later generations
The nobility began to imitate ceramic ritual vessels
forming a group of ritual artifacts centered around bronze ware
China's Bronze Age officially commenced
(Jue and Jiao, archaeological findings show traces of soot from fire on their bases, indicating their use for warming wine; the image below shows a bronze Jue with nipple pattern, one of the earliest bronze containers discovered in China, hailed as the "Finest Jue Under Heaven," photographer @ Fan Peizhuo, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
He, Jia, Gui
(Bronze Jia with nipple pattern, photographer @ Liu Peng, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The rulers also mass-produced bronze weapons
As the saying goes, "The great affairs of state are sacrifice and warfare"
replacing the original stone and wooden weapons
to better protect the interests of the rulers
including the Yue for chopping
and the Zu for long-range attacks
(Square Yue inlaid with cross patterns, decorated with turquoise inlays, photographer @ Su Lihuan, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Comparison between the Yue and the early form of the character "Wang." In oracle bone script, the character "Wang" resembles a Yue with its blade facing downward. In bronze script, it gradually became abstract, evolving into three horizontal strokes and one vertical stroke, with the bottom stroke retaining the shape of the Yue's blade. The Yue symbolizes military authority, and royal power originates from military authority, photographer @ Qi, illustration @ Han Qing & Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Additionally, there were shield-shaped bronze ornaments inlaid with turquoise
Some scholars speculate that it might have been
a "stylish" combat armguard when worn
(Bronze ornament inlaid with turquoise, photographer @ Dongmaiying, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The tradition that "The great affairs of state are sacrifice and warfare"
The Shang people built upon the bronze weapons of the Xia people
Helmets used for protection
(Bronze weapons, photographers: Li Qiong, Bao Haolin, images from Huitu.com, graphics by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The Shang people built upon the Xia people's foundation
Elevating the worship of ancestral spirits to a new level
Developing a more elaborate sacrificial system
Offering fine wine and delicacies to ancestral spirits
Namely, "entertaining spirits with wine and honoring them with food"
The bronze wine and food vessels used to hold these offerings
Introduced many entirely new vessel types
(Bronze li with "人" pattern, photographer: Liu Peng, graphics by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Yan, upper part is zeng for holding food, lower part is li for holding water, with a grate in between as a steamer. Below is the "Fu Hao" bronze triple yan, usually single yan are used, but this one has three connected yan, hence the name. Photographer: Liu Yedao, graphics by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Used to hold cooked millet and grains
(Gui with beast-face pattern, photographer: Dongmaiying, graphics by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Used to hold cooked millet, vegetables, or meat
(Bronze dou with beast-face pattern, image source: Jiangxi Provincial Museum, graphics by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Also the core of the entire bronze ritual vessel group
Created by King Wu Ding of Shang to commemorate his birth mother
One of China's foremost national treasures
(Houmuwu Ding, meaning "the great mother Wu," formerly called Simuwu Ding, i.e., "sacrificing to mother Wu." "Wu" is a temple name. There is still academic debate over whether the character should be read as "Hou" or "Si." Bronze dings may have existed in the Xia dynasty but no confirmed artifacts have been found. Photographer: Liu Yedao, graphics by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Three-sacrifice bronze zun with beast-face pattern, photographer: Yang Minzhi, graphics by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Father Yi Gong wine vessel, photographer @Yang Minzhi, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Square Yi vessel, photographer @Bao Haolin, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Square Lei vessel, massive in size and exquisitely crafted, known as the "King of Square Lei," photographer @Liu Yedao, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Square-bellied bronze You with beast-face pattern and handle, photographer @Su Lihuan, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Bronze Bu vessel, some theories suggest Bu also served as food containers, photographer @Cui Xin, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
or adorned with animals believed to possess mystical powers
(Animal motifs on bronze ware, photographers @Qi, Liu Yedao, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
or directly cloaked in animal "attire"
("Fu Hao" bronze owl-shaped Zun vessel, standing owl form with two legs and tail forming three support points, fully decorated with intricate patterns, a masterpiece among bronze ware, photographer @Liu Yedao, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
You shaped like a tiger with its mouth open as if devouring a human
(Tiger-eating-human You, reportedly unearthed in Ningxiang, Hunan, two pieces exist, both lost overseas; some scholars believe the design symbolizes a passage between life and death, photographer @Dongmaiying, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
People also designed a highly significant
frequently appearing on various bronze vessels
(Beast-face patterns, complex and varied, yet often clearly identifiable with eyes, brows, ears, and mouth; some believe these represent the legendary gluttonous monster Taotie, photographer @Qi, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
As the most powerful regime in China at the time
Shang's pursuit of divine kingship and its use of bronze ware
But they were not mere "copy and paste"
forging a bronze path distinctly different from the Central Plains style
(Crowned mask with protruding eyes, historical records describe the founding Shu king Cancong as having "protruding eyes"; this design likely imitates the ancestral deity image he created, photographer @Fengye Wutong, graphics @Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The king, as the grand shaman, wielded ritual implements
(The Bronze Standing Figure, some suggest it holds ivory or a jade cong in each hand, or perhaps a gesture of special significance. Scholars believe this figure represents a king with shamanic identity. Photographer: Su Linghan, Graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Gold-Masked Bronze Human Head, scholars propose that the gold-masked heads represent priests of a lower rank than the Bronze Standing Figure. Photographer: Cao Mingxiong, Graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Kneeling Figure with Zun Vessel on Trumpet-Shaped Base, scholars suggest the lower base may be an altar for sacrificial rituals, with the bronze zun vessel on top. Previous discoveries indicate the zun likely contained cowrie shells or jade offerings to deities. Photographer: Zhang Yan, Graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Bronze vessels served as conduits between rulers and deities.
Once rulers obtained divine mandate,
they established a hierarchical ritual-music order in the human world.
Beneath this operated a system of clans and bureaucracy.
Commoners constituted over 80% of society.
Bronze vessels demarcated social hierarchy,
with drinking vessels gu and jue as the core indicators.
More sets of gu and jue signified higher status.
A burial with only 1 gu and 1 jue represented the lowest rank.
(Gu and jue combinations from Shang Dynasty tombs, Image source: Hubei Provincial Museum, Graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Higher-status tombs contained additional items beyond gu and jue,
including ding, jia, yan, totaling 117 pieces.
(Please view horizontally, selected bronze funerary objects from Fu Hao's tomb, Photographers: Zhang Yan, Feng Sixu, City Explorer, Liu Yedao, Shi Yaochen, Liu Yedao, Jun Zuoren, Graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Fu Hao was also the first recorded female general in Chinese history,
buried with 91 bronze ge daggers, 2 bronze yue axes, and 6 bow-shaped artifacts.
(Bronze yue axe, Photographer: Liu Yedao, Graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
This also drove the Shang people to continuously expand their territory.
Mining copper, tin, lead, and other mineral resources everywhere
They themselves also indulged in "pools of wine and forests of meat"
(The "Li" bronze gui [a food vessel], with inscriptions recording the historical event of "King Wu's conquest of King Zhou." The reasons for the fall of the Shang Dynasty were multifaceted, and the bronze inscriptions reflect only one aspect. Photographer: Liu Yedao, Graphic designer: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The Zhou people summarized the lessons of the Shang Dynasty's downfall
(The Da Yu ding, with inscriptions documenting the Zhou people's diligence and the Shang people's indulgence in alcohol leading to their downfall, urging the Zhou to take it as a warning. Photographer: Sun Yelin, Graphic designer: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The tradition of distinguishing social ranks using gu and jue wine vessels
Instead, they adopted a ritual vessel system centered on ding and gui food vessels
The ding and gui of the same rank were identical in form
Called "ranked ding" and "ranked gui"
(The ruler of the Guo State in Sanmenxia, Henan, held the rank of duke among the feudal lords and used seven ding and six gui according to ritual norms. Below are the ranked ding and gui unearthed from the tomb of Duke Guo Ji. Photographer: Feng Chenyu)
Musical instruments also entered a period of great development during the Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou people incorporated music, dance, and poetry
Into the system regulating social hierarchy
Forming the Zhou Dynasty's "ritual and music system"
Bronze musical instruments, as the most important instruments
Together with stone instruments, formed the "sound of metal and stone"
Including bells, bo, nao, and others
(The Western Zhou Shi Cheng bell. Photographer: Li Wenbo, Graphic designer: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
These instruments appeared in sets arranged by pitch sequence and size
Often requiring suspension on frames for performance
Known as bianzhong (a set of bronze bells) and bianbo (a set of bronze percussion instruments)
(Zuo Bells, composed of 8 yongzhong (bell type) arranged by size, "Zuo" being the name of the bell set's owner; photographer: Li Wenbo, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Meat was placed in the ding (cauldron), while massive bianzhong were rhythmically struck
(The scene features bianzhong and bianqing (stone chimes), with a jian drum standing nearby; 3 people are striking the bells, 1 is hitting the chimes, 1 is playing the drum and dingning, and 1 is playing a horn-like wind instrument; on the right are 2 round ding, with 2 people engaged in cooking; image source: Palace Museum, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Could only be implemented under the strong rule of the royal court
The era of "collapse of rites and music" began
Brazenly inquired about the weight of the Nine Tripod Cauldrons, symbols of royal authority, from the Zhou court
(The ding was a national treasure and a symbol of royal power; asking about its weight indicated coveting the throne; below is the Prince Wu Sheng Ding, a representative bronze artifact of Chu culture; Prince Wu was the son of King Zhuang of Chu and served as prime minister under King Kang of Chu; photographer: Yang Hu, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The ruler of the Zeng State, located in Suizhou, Hubei
Not only used the most advanced "refrigerator" of the time
(Bronze ice vessel, containing a fou inside; the vessel held ice, while the fou stored fine wine, functioning as a "refrigerator"; photographer: Qu Bingchao, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
But also used the largest and most extensive bianzhong in terms of scale and range
It consisted of 65 bronze bells and 8 playing tools
Capable of performing a seven-note scale across five octaves
Music reached such heights 2,400 years ago
Truly a treasure in the history of world musical instruments
(Marquis Yi of Zeng's bianzhong; photographer: Su Lihuan, graphics: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
A feudal lord using bronze artifacts of such specifications
Spurred further advancements in bronze casting technology
Such as wax blocks made from beeswax, animal fat, etc.
Then carve the wax block into the desired vessel shape
(Illustration of wax model making in the lost-wax process, graphic by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
Afterward, pour fine clay slurry over the wax model's surface
Air-dry and bake to melt and drain the wax
(Illustration of wax removal in the lost-wax process, graphic by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
After cooling and polishing, the bronze artifact is obtained
(Illustration of casting in the lost-wax process, graphic by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
It enables casting bronze artifacts in virtually any design
Including those extraordinarily intricate masterpieces that astonish modern viewers
Such as the cloud-patterned "Jin" vessel adorned with 24 mythical beasts
(Cloud-patterned Jin vessel for holding wine vessels, "Jin" implies moderation or prohibition in drinking. Its body and openwork parts were cast separately via lost-wax method before composite molding. Photo by Liu Peng, graphic by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Or the Zun-Pan vessel composed of 72 components
(Zun-Pan vessel of Marquis Yi of Zeng, with openwork parts made by lost-wax method and main body by piece-mold casting. Photo by Zhao Yongqing, graphic by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
As the lofty ritual system collapsed
Bronze artifacts gradually descended from divine altars to mundane life
Bronze resources were largely diverted to weapon production
(Bronze weapons from the Spring and Autumn period. Photos by Liu Yedao, Zhao Yongqing & Liu Yusheng, graphic by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Swordmakers Ganjiang and Moye became legendary figures
(Sword of Goujian, King of Yue. Photo by Su Lihuan, graphic by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Tiger-shaped stove. Photo by Li Gang, graphic by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Bronze human-shaped lamp, photographer @ Zhu Fusheng, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Institute)
Even chamber pots for urination were made of bronze
(Tiger-shaped vessel with gold and silver inlaid bird patterns, photographer @ Arterial Shadow, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Institute)
The ritual and musical civilization carried by bronze ware
Despite Confucius' fervent calls to restore the ritual and music system
The Legalist doctrine advocating rule by law
A new metal had already emerged during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods
All possessed greater capabilities than bronze ware
(Jade-hilted iron sword, currently the earliest known artificially smelted iron product in China, featuring a jade hilt, bronze core, and iron blade. The bronze core connects the jade hilt to the iron blade, photographer @ Jun Zuoren, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Institute)
Also significantly enhanced humanity's ability to utilize wood
Coupled with the subsequent rise of ceramics in China
Bronze ware gradually withdrew from many domains
Only retaining residual roles in certain areas
Such as those circulating throughout China's entire feudal era
(Currently known, early Chinese currency included cowrie shells. During the Bronze Age, bronze-cast imitation cowrie coins, spade-shaped coins imitating farm tools, knife-shaped coins imitating tools, and round coins imitating jade discs appeared. Below are spade coins, knife coins, and round coins, photographers @ Qi, Zhu Fusheng, Liu Yusheng, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Institute)
(Examples of bronze mirrors, photographers @ Liu Yusheng, Liu Yedao, Arterial Shadow, illustration @ Yang Ning/Planet Institute)
An era of ritual and musical civilization embodied by bronze ware came to an end
How the ancients organized and managed society
The ancients used bronze ware to worship ancestors and deities
And maintained order forcefully with bronze weapons
(Mao Gong Ding, photographer @动脉影, graphic design @杨宁/Planet Research Institute)
The 2000-year-long Bronze Age finally came to an end
But China had passed through its youthful era
And entered a more mature feudal period
The various systems explored by the ancestors of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties
Such as "one word carries the weight of nine tripods," "promotion in rank and title,"
"Living in luxury with chimes and tripods," "hierarchy of age and status," and so on
The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, centered around bronze culture
Formed a shared belief system in the Central Plains and surrounding regions
(He Zun, bearing the earliest inscription of the term "China," referring to the center of the world, photographer @动脉影, graphic design @杨宁/Planet Research Institute)
Design | Luo Zihan & Yang Ning & Han Qing
Professor Zhang Lidong, School of History and Culture, Henan University
PS: The mainstream view in archaeology considers the Erlitou culture as primarily representing Xia culture, though debates persist; there are differing opinions on the time span of the Bronze Age, including approximately 2000 BC to 221 BC (Qin Shi Huang's unification of China), or around 1700 BC (Erlitou culture period) to about 350 BC (early Warring States period).
[1] Li Boqian et al. Bronze Ware and China's Bronze Age[M]. University of Science and Technology of China Press, 2018.4.
[2] Zhu Fenghan. A Comprehensive Study of Chinese Bronze Ware[M]. Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2009.12.
[3] Zhang Guangzhi. The Bronze Age of China[M]. SDX Joint Publishing Company, 2013.3.
[4] Jing Zhongwei, Wang Lixin. Archaeology of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties[M]. Science Press, 2013.
[5] Lian Haiping, Tan Derui, Zheng Guang. Research on Bronze Casting Techniques at the Erlitou Site[J]. Acta Archaeologica Sinica, 2011(04):561-575+593-600.
[6] Wu Laiming et al. Magnificent Treasures: Ancient Bronze Casting Techniques[M]. Cultural Relics Press, 2008.7.
[7] Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. The Tomb of Fu Hao at Yinxu[M]. Cultural Relics Press, 1980.12.