Kaifeng: An Underrated Ancient Capital?
(Please view horizontally, schematic of the Northern Song Dynasty's Dongjing City, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
(From Li Qingzhao's "A Twig of Mume Blossoms: Fragrant lotus blooms fade, autumn chills mat of jade")
"This feeling cannot be dispelled; no sooner does it leave the eyebrows than it occupies the heart."
(From Liu Yong's "Soaring Crane: On the Golden List")
"How could I bear to trade fleeting fame for slow sips and soft songs?"
(From Su Shi's "Riverside Town: A Dream on the Night of the 20th Day of the 1st Moon, 1075")
"Ten years parted, one living, one dead; Not thinking, Yet never forgetting."
(From Li Yu's "Beautiful Lady Yu: When Will Spring Flowers and Autumn Moon End?")
"Last night in the small tower, the east wind blew again; My lost homeland is unbearable to recall under the bright moon."
(Though Su Shi's verse above was not written in Dongjing, his deceased wife memorialized in the poem died there. Moreover, his father also passed away in Dongjing, and he himself endured 103 days of imprisonment there. It can be said most of Su Shi's life's sufferings were tied to Dongjing. Photographer: Yue Kefeng)
Like a dream of Huaxu, its joy boundless.
(Huaxu was the ideal realm in the Yellow Emperor's dream. Ancient people likened Dongjing's splendor to the dreamland of Huaxu, hence the name "Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital." Below is an illustration of the Iron Pagoda, by Han Qing/Planet Research Institute)
Many historians and architects believe
It surpassed almost all ancient capitals of China.
"Chinese culture, through millennia of evolution, reached its zenith in the Zhao-Song era."
Flipping through voluminous historical records
(Location and terrain schematic of Daliang City, illustration by Chen Jingyi/Planet Research Institute)
Enormous population and wealth followed.
Mencius, Su Qin, Zhang Yi, Lord Xinling, Lord Mengchang
All left legends in this city.
(Schematic diagram of Daliang City and its surrounding water systems during the Warring States period, map by Chen Jingyi/Planet Research Institute)
Dispatched the renowned general Sun Bin to strike directly at Daliang, forcing the Wei army to retreat
Qi State still used Daliang as a feint target
(Tomb of Pang Juan, located in Tongxu County, Kaifeng, Henan. "Where are the generals and ministers of old? Only a desolate grave overgrown with grass remains." Image source: China Pang Clan Museum)
Besides being indefensible and easy to manipulate
(Schematic diagram of the "suspended river above ground." The Kaifeng Iron Pagoda did not exist in 225 BCE and is shown only for height reference. Map by Han Qing/Planet Research Institute)
And the revival of this city in its next life
China's first artificial canal running north-south
Among them, the Tongji Canal (Bian River) connected to the Yellow River
Diverting about one-third of the Yellow River's water volume
Bianzhou, the strategic chokehold of the Tang capital's transportation
(Please view horizontally. Schematic diagram of Bianzhou's water systems during the Sui and Tang dynasties, map by Chen Jingyi/Planet Research Institute)
Later Liang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou
Chang'an was destroyed by war, while Luoyang still survived
Later Liang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou
Although Kaifeng was designated as the Eastern Capital (Dongdu)
(Mid-Autumn Festival night view of Luoyang's Yingtian Gate today, photographer: Jiao Xiaoxiang)
Chenqiao Post, about 20 kilometers north of Kaifeng
That was where he launched a mutiny and was draped with the imperial yellow robe
As the supreme commander of the Later Zhou imperial guards
Most of Zhao Kuangyin's close associates were rooted in Dongjing.
Zhao Kuangyin's first capital was Kaifeng.
Although revered as Dongjing Kaifengfu here,
it was actually just a temporary stronghold of a regional regime.
It likely lacked a central axis running through the entire city.
The city's core was the so-called "palace,"
originally merely the administrative office of a local prefecture.
(The scale of a local administrative office, similar to the Kaifengfu in the image below, photographer @ Wang Xinwei.)
Thus, a symbolic capital axis was constructed.
Most ancient capitals in Chinese history possessed a central axis.
(Illustration of the Imperial Street in Dongjing of the Northern Song, mapped by @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute.)
The physical urban space of this central axis,
compared to the approximately 100-step width of Zhuque Street in Tang Chang'an,
"In spring and summer, it looks like embroidered silk from afar."
(Please view horizontally, illustration of the Imperial Street, mapped by @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute.)
"Ordered officials to sketch the Luoyang palaces and rebuild them accordingly."
The imperial city (palace city) of Dongjing in the Northern Song
was essentially a 1:1 replica of Luoyang's palace city,
inheriting the grandeur and charm of the Tang Dynasty.
(Illustration of the imperial city, mapped by @ Du Rui/Planet Research Institute.)
including the "Hall of Civil Virtue" where the emperor handled state affairs
as well as the "Hall of Earthly Tranquility" where the empress resided
the tallest and most magnificent among the palaces
it is located on the central axis of Dongjing City
fully embodying the unparalleled imperial grandeur
(Please view horizontally, illustration of the Great Celebration Hall, designed by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
a critical period of conquering all directions and competing for supremacy
beyond meeting the necessary palace construction
(Kaifeng Longting Park, once the site of the Northern Song imperial palace, photographer: Yue Kefeng)
accounting for about 1/2 of the total palace area
occupying only 1/16 of the total palace area
(comparison of garden areas in the Tang Chang'an City and Northern Song Dongjing City palace, designed by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
naturally aware of Kaifeng's military shortcomings
defensive projects were even more crucial for capital construction
as well as the walls of the imperial palace (Forbidden City)
(illustration of the triple-layered city walls of Northern Song Dongjing City, designed by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
marking the beginning of brick-clad walls in ancient China
pioneering the construction of corner towers in Chinese imperial palaces
(illustration of Qing palace corner towers, designed by Li Qianlang/Through Walls and Structures)
the inner city walls in between serving as a buffer
Drawing on the architectural experience of border cities
(Illustration of horse-face walls and intersecting defense networks, designed by Hanqing/Planet Research Institute)
Equipped with "enemy towers" for garrison purposes
City builders established multiple layers of defense lines
Forming a relatively enclosed space
If enemy troops breached the outer gate and flooded into the barbican
They could be trapped and annihilated
(Barbican illustration, designed by Hanqing & Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
About one-third to half of the nation's military forces were permanently stationed in the capital
(Military camp locations in Dongjing of the Northern Song Dynasty, designed by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
Under such robust defensive measures
Dongjing enjoyed unimpeded access in all directions and rested secure
This was reflected in the names of its city gates
Such as Caomen connecting to Caozhou (modern Heze, Shandong)
Songmen linking to Songzhou (modern Shangqiu, Henan)
Zhengmen leading to Zhengzhou (modern Zhengzhou, Henan)
Fengqiumen extending to Fengqiu (modern Fengqiu, Henan)
Dongjing truly became the heart of the empire
(City gates of Northern Song Dongjing, designed by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The main west street ran from Xinzhengmen to Zhengmen
The eastern main street runs from the New Song Gate to the Song Gate
The northern main street extends from the New Fengqiu Gate to the Fengqiu Gate
These four streets converge radially toward the city's core
"Ruling over all directions" and "holding the world in one's grasp"
(Diagram of the Imperial Roads in the Northern Song Dynasty's Dongjing City, mapped by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
A reshaping led by the Northern Song emperors
To forge a prosperous capital city
Kaifeng, which rose to prominence through the Sui-Tang Grand Canal
Namely the Bian River, Cai River, Wuzhang River, and Jinshui River
"Dongjing sustains hundreds of thousands of armored troops and a million households; the empire's grain transport relies entirely on this single waterway."
The Hong Canal and the Tongji Canal of the Sui-Tang Grand Canal
(Diagram of the water systems in Northern Song Dongjing City, the Huimin River is the upstream name of the Cai River, both belonging to the same water system, mapped by Chen Jingyi/Planet Research Institute)
A city laid out in strict, orderly squares
(Diagram of water systems and bridges in Northern Song Dongjing City, mapped by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The variety of bridge designs in Dongjing
Earned it the title "Exhibition Hall of Ancient Chinese Bridges"
(Diagram of selected bridges in Northern Song Dongjing City, mapped by Du Rui/Planet Research Institute)
The Bian River, sourced from the Yellow River, frequently flooded
Yet this Rainbow Bridge over the Bian remained intact for fifty years
Due to its woven wooden structure
Does not directly bear the impact of the torrent
(Schematic diagram of the rainbow bridge structure. Structurally, the rainbow bridge belongs to the woven timber arch bridge. Illustration by Du Rui & Wang Shenwen/Planet研究所)
(Detail from "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," currently housed in the Palace Museum. Image source: Wikimedia Commons. Illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet研究所)
Millions of dan of rice from the Jiang, Huai, Hu, and Zhe regions
As well as the myriad treasures from the southeastern coast
The highest tax revenue was approximately 5 times that of the Tang Dynasty
(Please view horizontally. The above data is from "Financial Policies and Socio-Economy in the Song Dynasty." Below is a detail from "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," currently housed in the Palace Museum. Image source: Wikimedia Commons. Illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet研究所)
A commercial city more prosperous than Chang'an
Spurred the creation of the earliest paper currency in human history
Namely, "opening shops along the streets" (the street market system)
(Detail from "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," currently housed in the Palace Museum. Image source: Wikimedia Commons. Illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet研究所)
Within the square walls called "markets"
Within the square walls called "wards"
Market and ward gates opened at sunrise and closed at sunset
Cities were under relatively militarized management
Commercial spaces such as restaurants, taverns, and shops
Flooded into streets, city gates, bridgeheads, and even temples
They broke through the spatial constraints of market and ward walls
The capital's streets became a "shopping paradise" for the people
Panlou Street became the financial center of the time
Xiangguo Temple became the largest trading market in the entire city
(Schematic of commercial building land in the Northern Song Dynasty's Dongjing City, mapped by @Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The area around Zhou Bridge where the Bian River intersects with the Imperial Street
The area around Longjin Bridge where the Cai River intersects with the Imperial Street
The time constraints of working at sunrise and resting at sunset
Active shop transactions and land annexation
(Schematic of streets in the contemporary Xiangguo Temple area of Kaifeng City. Although the current urban form differs greatly from the Northern Song period, their formation patterns still share commonalities, mapped by @Chen Jingyi/Planet Research Institute)
The bustling and picturesque riverside with dense crowds
Shops often set up waterside seating with a view
They would even invite boat owners ashore for a drink
(Detail from "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," now housed in the Palace Museum, image source @wikimedia commons, mapped by @Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
Erecting flamboyant temporary structures
Likely adorned with embroidered balls and colored lanterns
(Colorful Tower Gate, from a detail of "The Water Mill at the Lock," image source @China National Treasure Museum, housed in the Shanghai Museum, mapped by @Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
(Schematic breakdown of the "Colorful Tower Gate," mapped by @Du Rui & Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
It includes a stage, backstage (dressing room)
Audience seating (waist gallery), premium seating (divine tower), etc.
The basic form of Chinese theater architecture
Performers of variety plays, singing, acrobatics, puppet shows
Dancers, storytellers, and novelists, among other entertainers
for his romantic affair with the famous courtesan Li Shishi
(Please view horizontally, "Emperor Taizu of Song Playing Cuju," housed in the Shanghai Museum, image source @ Zhonghua Zhenbaoguan)
making emperors indulge in it and linger forgetful of return
also attracting people from across the land to settle here
the population of Dongjing City had been growing continuously since the capital was established
approximately 1 million and 1.2 million respectively
becoming one among the ancient capitals of successive Chinese dynasties
(Illustration of the number of wards and households in Dongjing City during the Northern Song Dynasty, chart by @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
established "patrol stations" for fire prevention
for example, wells were built in a "field" character shape
(Detail of "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," currently housed in the Palace Museum, image source @ Wikimedia Commons, chart by @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
often a single building served multiple functions
could temporarily accommodate officials arriving in the capital and their families
could house new institutions established during Wang Anshi's reforms
officials were also forced to "work on the move"
for example, the examination hall for national-level talent selection
having gone through locations such as the Department of State Affairs (Zhu Wen's former residence), the Temple of Martial Achievements
the Department of State Affairs (Meng Chang's former residence), Kaibao Temple
the Imperial Academy, Piyong, and other multiple relocations
(Illustration of palace, royal gardens, and government office sites in Dongjing City during the Northern Song Dynasty, chart by @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
For example, outside the northern wall of the rear garden
Craftsmen piled rocks to form mountains and dug ponds to create seas
(Plan of Yanfu Palace, illustration by Du Rui/Planet Research Institute)
"The mountain lies in the Gen (northeast) direction of the state, hence named Genyue."
(Plan of Genyue, illustration by Du Rui/Planet Research Institute)
But it was fragmented by city walls and major urban roads
Relatively spacious and large-scale imperial gardens
Yujin Garden, Ruisheng Garden, Qionglin Garden, and Yichun Garden
Were located in the east, south, west, and north of the city respectively
(Illustration of the "Four Gardens," illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
Such as monkeys sent from Tianzhu (India)
Elephants presented as tribute from Jiaozhi (Vietnam)
Like an exclusive "zoo" for the emperor
Boasting the widest water surface in Dongjing City
It was originally an artificial lake dug for naval training
Gradually evolving into
A "water park" enjoyed by both the ruler and the people
(Competition at Jinming Pond, painted by Zhang Zeduan of the Northern Song Dynasty, housed in Tianjin Museum, photographer@Liu Yedao)
Designed for emperors to watch water performances
(Detail of Competition at Jinming Pond, photographer@Liu Yedao, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
On the "Open Pool Day" when it was accessible to the public
Temporary entertainment venues, tea stalls, and wine shops were also set up
Even the corridors around the Five Halls at the Water's Heart
Allowed vendors to set up stalls and performers to juggle
(Partial view of "Competition at Jinming Pool," photographer @Liu Yedao, graphic by @Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The city further upgraded to "three-dimensional transportation"
Between the Yanfu Palace and Genyue, separated by just a street
(Diagram of the elevated walkway, graphic by @Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
But the royal gardens dominated by water bodies
The imperial waterways and the public land routes
(Diagram of "three-dimensional transportation" in the Northern Song's Dongjing City, graphic by @Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
"The Son of Heaven (the emperor) shuttles beneath the canal"
The royal gardens were periodically opened to the public
Greatly reshaping the city's appearance
Meng Chang of Later Shu, Li Yu of Southern Tang
Liu Jiyuan of Northern Han, Liu Chang of Southern Han
Qian Chu of Wuyue, and other fallen monarchs
As well as "the mighty armies of the Seven States, the vassals of the feudal lords"
He gazed at the moonlit courtyard with flowing water and lamented
"How much sorrow can you bear? It’s like a river of spring water flowing east."
(Residence of Qian Chu, King of Wuyue; Li Yu, the last emperor of Southern Tang, received similar treatment as Qian Chu, illustration by Hanqing/Planet Research Institute)
(From "Sequel to the Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance")
"In the capital, those with assets worth a million are numerous, and those with over a hundred thousand are everywhere."
The swords of Western Xia, and exotic dancers from distant lands
The most exquisite porcelain from the Five Great Kilns
(Porcelain from the Song Dynasty, photographers: Liu Yedao, Su Lihuan, Dongmai Ying, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
Foreign merchants transporting goods on camels were not uncommon
Such as merchants from Dashi (Arab), Gula, Shepo, Champa
Borneo, Mayi, Srivijaya, and other foreign lands
Merchants from Dashi (modern-day Arabia) alone
(The above text is from "Sequel to the Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance"; the image below is a detail from "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," housed in the Palace Museum, source: Wikimedia Commons, illustration by Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The Song court mobilized formidable political power
To relocate over 200 skilled silk weavers from Shu (Sichuan)
Thus making Dongjing (Kaifeng) one of the central hubs for textile production
The largest domestic production center was in Dongjing
(A Song Dynasty man's brocade robe, housed in the Palace Museum, source: Visual China Group)
Namely the compass, gunpowder, and printing
Which truly became widespread and applied during the Northern Song
The compass began guiding ships across the seas
Gunpowder was deployed on a large scale in warfare
Continuously advancing the research and improvement of gunpowder
After major projects such as the Longde Palace and the Imperial Ancestral Temple
Compiled the world's leading
architectural treatise "Treatise on Architectural Methods"
Astronomers Su Song, Han Gonglian, and others
(Water-Powered Armillary Sphere and Celestial Globe, illustration by Hanqing/Planet Research Institute)
Specially designed a detachable roof
(Armillary sphere of the Water-Powered Armillary Sphere and Celestial Globe, illustration by Hanqing/Planet Research Institute)
162 exquisitely crafted wooden figurines
(Day-and-night mechanism wheel of the Water-Powered Armillary Sphere and Celestial Globe, illustration by Hanqing/Planet Research Institute)
"(It) is very likely the direct ancestor of the European medieval astronomical clock"
The achievements in astronomy, mathematics, medicine,
agriculture, architecture, and other fields during the Northern Song Dynasty
further led the progress of global science and technology
(Escapement mechanism of the Water-Powered Armillary Sphere and Celestial Globe, illustration by Hanqing/Planet Research Institute)
Responsible for managing and appointing abbots of monasteries nationwide
The story of "Lu Zhishen Uprooting a Willow Tree"
took place in the vegetable garden of the Great Xiangguo Temple
(Great Xiangguo Temple illustration, illustration by Hanqing/Planet Research Institute)
Due to the iron-like color of its outer glazed bricks
Became the earliest and tallest glazed pagoda in China
(Iron Pagoda in Kaifeng, photographer: Yue Kefeng)
The public pooled funds to build it in the southeast of the capital
Because it stands on a highland called Fan Terrace
Over 7,000 carved bricks embedded with Buddha statues
Cover the pagoda inside and out, creating a spectacular sight
(Fan Pagoda, photographer: Jiao Xiaoxiang, graphics: Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The Imperial Academy of Calligraphy and the Imperial Academy of Painting
Over 220 top painters from across the country flocked to Dongjing
"A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains" was also born here
Chinese painting and calligraphy reached a new peak
(Detail of "A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains" by Wang Ximeng of the Northern Song Dynasty, now housed in the Palace Museum, image source: Wikimedia Commons)
"Descendants of officials above the fifth rank and county magistrates, and great-grandchildren of officials above the third rank"
"Outstanding commoners were also eligible to enroll"
(Ouyang Xiu's "Zhuo Ai Ti Tie," now housed in the Palace Museum, photographer: Liu Yedao)
Sima Guang and Wang Anshi presented memorials at court
Admitted Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zeng Gong, and others
The failed candidate Liu Yong vented his youthful pride
"A gifted poet is naturally a minister in commoner's robes"
Literary masters like Yan Shu, Yan Jidao, and Zhou Bangyan
(From "Record of the Reconstruction of Wenzheng Academy" by Xu Youzhen of the Ming Dynasty)
"The Song Dynasty ruled for three hundred years, its territory was not as vast as that of the Han and Tang Dynasties, but its abundance of talent surpassed them."
(Ming Dynasty rubbing of Su Shi's calligraphy for "Record of the Drunken Old Pavilion," photographer @ Liu Yedao, graphics @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute)
The future Yuan capital Dadu and the Ming-Qing Beijing city
(Please view horizontally, "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," graphics @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute, image source @ Wikimedia Commons)
After the Jin troops marched south and occupied Dongjing
They gradually buried and leveled the Dongjing city
Even the later Jin-era Kaifeng city and Ming-Qing Kaifeng city
(Illustration of Kaifeng's cultural layers through dynasties, graphics @ Du Rui/Planet Research Institute)
From the Warring States Wei capital Daliang city to the Sui-Tang Bianzhou city
From the Five Dynasties' Dongjing Kaifeng Prefecture to the Northern Song's Dongjing city
To the Jin-era Kaifeng city and Ming-Qing Kaifeng city
A globally rare "city stacked upon city" and "city above city" phenomenon
This city "peaked at its debut"
(Illustration of Kaifeng's "city stacked upon city," graphics @ Du Rui/Planet Research Institute)
Just to catch a glimpse of the fleeting brilliance of Northern Song Dongjing city
(Please view horizontally, Kaifeng Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, photographer @ Yue Kefeng)
This is the charm of Northern Song Dongjing city
It has made countless people admire, yearn for, and pursue it
Its very existence is a pinnacle in itself
(From Meng Yuanlao's "The Splendid Dreams of the Eastern Capital")
"All corners of the world converge, nations far and wide connect, gathering treasures from the four seas."
(From Jia Dongting's "Why We Love the Song Dynasty")
"A vivid depiction of the bustling urban customs of Bianjing, the Northern Song capital, during the Qingming Festival... Last year (2016)... sparked an unprecedented viewing frenzy."
It also lingers in the flowing waters of the Bian River and the dream of Huaxu.
Before me, I see no ancients; behind me, I see no successors.
"Having seen the ocean, nothing else compares; beyond Liangyuan (the Eastern Capital), all else seems rustic."
Design | Luo Zihan, Han Qing, Du Rui
Proofreading | Tomorrow Will Be Better, Jia Xingzhou, Wu Xintian
Prof. Li Hequn, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Henan University
Chen Xiao, Kaifeng Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology
[1] Henan Museum, ed. Splendid Dreams of the Eastern Capital: The Song, Jin, and Yuan Periods [M]. Beijing: Science Press, 2017
[2] Zhang Jin. A Study of the Imperial Palaces and Gardens in Kaifeng and Lin'an During the Song Dynasty [M]. Jinan: Qilu Press, 2008
[3] Deng Ye. Research on the Urban Spatial Form of the Northern Song Eastern Capital [D], School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, 2004
[4] Liu Chunying. Archaeological Kaifeng [M]. Beijing: Science Press, 2019
[5] Liang Jianguo. Population Distribution and Spatial Utilization in the Northern Song Eastern Capital [J]. Research on Chinese Economic History, 2016(6)
[6] Li Hequn. Research on the Construction and Layout of the Northern Song Eastern Capital [M]. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, 2017