Why Quanzhou: An Explanation for China's 56th UNESCO World Heritage Site
▲ Facing the sea, Quanzhou natives believe that "fortune favors the bold." / VCG
Quanzhou: Emporium of the World in Song-Yuan China
Became China’s 56th World Heritage Site
Fujian Tulou in Zhangzhou (some tulou are also distributed in Longyan)
Already successfully inscribed as World Heritage in 2008 and 2017 respectively
The "Golden Triangle of Southern Fujian" shares equal prominence
So why Quanzhou this time?
If we turn our gaze to the world of 1271—
That year, Kublai Khan changed the dynastic name to "Great Yuan," the Southern Song regime was on the verge of collapse, Europeans were just recovering from the洗礼 of the Mongol cavalry, and the 17-year-old Marco Polo set sail from Venice for the first time with his family. It was still over a century before Zheng He’s "Seven Voyages to the Western Seas" in the Ming Dynasty, and 221 years before Columbus discovered the Americas...
Meanwhile, in the southeastern corner of the Chinese mainland, Jacob of Ancona, an Italian Jewish merchant, was astonished by the bustling port city before him—a hub where people and goods converged from countless nations. This was:
A natural oriental harbor. Its coastline is winding and long, surrounded by mountains that form a natural shelter, with numerous navigation towers and bridges creating an intricate network. The river was filled with tens of thousands of cargo ships, bustling and brightly lit even at night. As early as 750 years ago, a highly developed trade network had already "emerged from the sea."
It entered the era of "globalization" early on. At its peak, Quanzhou had trade partnerships with 98 countries and regions. The city was home to people of diverse races speaking "over 100 languages." Whether it was imported spices and medicines or local porcelain and tea, there were specialized markets—even streets dedicated to apothecaries and fortune-tellers.
▲ Anxi Tieguanyin, a world-renowned specialty of Quanzhou, being sun-dried. / Photo by Chen Yingjie
Quanzhou was like the "Yiwu" of the Song and Yuan dynasties, embarking on a path of "buying and selling globally" centuries ago. This port city, once known as "Zayton," relied on mountainous industries and faced the vast ocean with its advanced "logistics" system of bridges, towers, and docks. It was a window through which the world understood China, fulfilling all imaginations of the rich and mysterious East.
Top Goods: Quanzhou’s Primary Allure to the World
The first step Quanzhou took to influence the world was becoming its showcase.
▲ Quanzhou, the "Window to the World" during the Song and Yuan periods. Merchants from around the globe brought diverse beliefs and cultures, reflected in Quanzhou’s architectural art. / VCG
Today, Quanzhou is renowned for brands like Anta, Peak, and Septwolves, consistently leading Fujian’s economy. As early as the Song and Yuan periods, Quanzhou Port was already the "world’s factory."
In 1987, the "Nanhai No.1" shipwreck from the Song Dynasty was discovered off the coast of Yangjiang, Guangdong, shocking the archaeological world. Experts identified that 80% of the "bluish-white porcelain" on board originated from Quanzhou, along with large quantities of strategic resources like ironware. The "Nanhai No.1" likely set sail from Quanzhou into the open seas.
What were the flagship products that Quanzhou exported to the world at that time?
The Maritime Silk Road would not be complete without the overseas-famous "Citong Satin"; the then-emerging Dehua porcelain later became the world-renowned "Chinese White"; Anxi Tieguanyin tea had not yet appeared, but Anxi ironware was in high demand.
▲ Figures 1 and 2 show a detail of the Ming Dynasty He Chaozong's masterpiece "Guanyin Crossing the Sea" in Dehua white porcelain. Dehua white porcelain Guanyin statues once led European lifestyle trends due to their exquisite and elegant postures. Figure 3 shows the Wenchang Emperor by He Chaozong of the Ming Dynasty. Photo/Ye Xiangyu
Porcelain was the signature cargo of merchant ships departing from Quanzhou and throughout southern Fujian. As a window to Song and Yuan China, Quanzhou's ships were loaded not only with porcelain from the two major local kiln systems—Dehua and Cizao—but also with porcelain from as far as Chuzhou (Longquan) in Zhejiang and porcelain pots and bottles from Fuliang (Jingde) in Jiangxi, gathering the finest representatives of Chinese porcelain.
Dehua white porcelain, which rose during the Song Dynasty, is the essence of Quanzhou's treasures. At its peak, Dehua white porcelain could be fired from kaolin clay to achieve the texture of jade, then sold at the price of gold.
▲ Batch customization, high quality, and low prices are also among the features of Dehua white porcelain. This batch customization model emerged as early as the Song and Yuan periods. Photo/Chen Jian
The saying "the local environment is ideal for porcelain" holds true for Dehua. The people of Dehua built kilns along the slopes on both sides of the river, producing items ranging from tea sets and ritual vessels to porcelain sculptures of deities. Unlike the strictly regulated official kilns, the innovative and enterprising people of Dehua long offered "custom-made" and standardized production services—even before the Chinese had tasted coffee or beer, Dehua artisans were already firing coffee sets and beer mugs.
▲ Dehua Yueji Kiln, with a fire burning continuously for four hundred years. Photo/Chen Jian
Beyond porcelain, many other Quanzhou treasures once gained widespread popularity. The world-renowned Quanzhou satin of that time has long faded into obscurity, but we can still catch a glimpse of Quanzhou's once-widespread mulberry cultivation from the ancient mulberry tree at Kaiyuan Temple. Another product—Anxi Tieguanyin tea from Quanzhou—later rose to prominence and became even more famous. At its peak, it almost became synonymous with oolong tea overseas.
▲ Anxi tea plantation, where farmers are picking tea. Small tea leaves weave through the history of Quanzhou's overseas trade and are deeply embedded in the daily lives of its people. Photo/Chen Yingjie
Some foreign influences also took root locally, such as the incense-making technique introduced by Arabs. Over centuries, it made Yongchun Dapu in Quanzhou the "Incense Capital of China." Through the fragrance of incense, the people of Quanzhou could spiritually connect with heaven and earth.
▲ The Incense Capital of China—Yongchun Dapu in Quanzhou, Fujian, where incense is being made. This incense-making technique originated from Arabs who came to Quanzhou for overseas trade. Photo/VCG
However, many of these Quanzhou treasures were hidden deep in the mountains. How did a piece of Dehua porcelain from the Song and Yuan periods, tucked away in remote mountains, reach Europe?
They were transported from the kilns at the foot of Dehua's Jiuxian Mountain, first along mountain paths to Yongchun, then via the East River-Jinjiang water and land transport route, passing multiple "sea-crossing bridges," and finally boarding seagoing vessels at Jiangkou Wharf or Shihu Wharf. Guided by the two navigational stone pagodas—Liusheng Pagoda and Wanshou Pagoda—they set sail on the Maritime Silk Road.
In this process, bridges, pagodas, and wharves formed an intricate relay, allowing merchants and goods to meet on the Jiangkou Plain between the Jinjiang and Luoyang Rivers—the hub of Quanzhou Port. This was Quanzhou's world-leading "land-water logistics system" at the time.
In this logistics system, wharves were the basic facilities for receiving ships; pagodas were both symbols of local faith and navigational beacons guiding ships in and out of the harbor. Bridges, however, were the "joints" that moved goods for the people of Quanzhou. They were not ordinary stone bridges but were built at river estuaries and bays—
▲ Luoyang Bridge, presided over by the Northern Song calligrapher Cai Xiang, is a large sea-crossing stone bridge and the earliest existing beam-style sea-crossing stone bridge in China. Construction began in 1053 and was completed in 1059. It has been repaired through various dynasties and remains well-preserved today. Photo/Yang Futian
According to statistics, 175 stone bridges in Quanzhou were built starting from the Song and Yuan periods. The more prosperous Quanzhou Port's trade became, the more fervently Quanzhou people built bridges. These bridges formed a complete set of "capillaries" for Quanzhou's wealth.
▲ Looking outward from the statue, one side of Luoyang Bridge is evenly distributed with boat-shaped piers, which effectively reduce the impact of water flow on the bridge piers. Photo/Fang Tuomasi
Take Luoyang Bridge, presided over by the great calligrapher Cai Xiang. As the earliest existing beam-style sea-crossing stone bridge in China, it spans the Luoyang River. Once built, it not only facilitated pedestrian travel but also opened up trade routes north from Quanzhou. Goods unloaded at Shihu Wharf, Jiangkou Wharf, and other locations were distributed within the ancient city of Quanzhou, then passed directly over the Luoyang River along the foothills of Qingyuan Mountain, reaching north to Fuzhou and as far as Jiangsu and Zhejiang.
▲ Quanzhou City is located on the Jiangkou Plain, surrounded by a dense network of waterways. Bridges connect Quanzhou's land and water transportation, making commercial trade and logistics more convenient. Illustration/Monet
The Luoyang Bridge facilitated the movement of people, while another bridge, the Anping Bridge, which connected Quanzhou with Zhangzhou, Guangzhou, and other regions to its south, played a more direct role. This "longest bridge in the world" at the time directly cut through the bay, allowing ships from afar to dock at the port without having to navigate deep into the bay's waterways. At the same time, it connected Jinjiang and Nan'an to the south of Quanzhou Port, enabling land transport of goods and greatly improving efficiency.
▲ The Anping Bridge is the longest existing cross-sea beam stone bridge in China, measuring approximately 2,255 meters in length. Photo/VCG
Starting with the Luoyang Bridge, the people of Quanzhou embarked on a 300-year history of magnificent bridge-building. One after another, cross-sea bridges extended the land's foundation into the ocean, allowing merchants and goods from around the world to penetrate Quanzhou and even the vast regions of southern China.
For merchants arriving from afar, another guidance system awaited them: at the mouth of Quanzhou Bay, the Liusheng Pagoda guided merchant ships from the main channel of Quanzhou Bay into the inland river ports. At the highest point of Quanzhou Bay's estuary, today's Baogai Mountain in Shishi City, the Wanshou Pagoda was built with the wish to "lock the waterway and ensure safety," directly guiding merchant ships through the main channel of the Taiwan Strait into and out of Quanzhou Port.
▲ Due to the story of sisters-in-law waiting for their loved ones to return, the Wanshou Pagoda is also known as the "Gusao Ta" (Sisters-in-Law Pagoda). For those in Quanzhou engaged in maritime trade, the Wanshou Pagoda is also regarded as a symbol of their hometown. Photo/VCG
In Quanzhou, pagodas transcended their purely religious role. Today, the Shihu Port under the Liusheng Pagoda has become Quanzhou's main modern container port, while the Wanshou Pagoda serves as a spiritual landmark for the people of Quanzhou, guiding generations of wanderers on their maritime journey home.
During the Five Dynasties period, as war raged in the Central Plains, Quanzhou Port, being a "place avoided by military strategists," gradually flourished. Afterwards, through bridge-building, the vitality of Quanzhou Port expanded step by step into the vast mountainous areas to the northwest. Ancient pagodas stood tall between the mountains and the sea, guiding maritime routes from all directions. Soon, under the converging gazes of two great powers on land and sea (the Song Dynasty and the Arab world), Quanzhou would become the Quanzhou of the world.
Whenever the monsoon winds blew in Quanzhou Port, it was time for Quanzhou's "brains" to gather.
▲ Quanzhou gathers people and things from all over the world. The picture shows an aerial view of the Zhonglou (Clock Tower) on West Street. Photo/Li Wenbo
At Jiuri Mountain, the birthplace of Quanzhou culture, the city's rulers gathered to pray to the sea god for safe voyages. According to stone inscriptions, this ceremony was presided over by local government officials, with participation from "customs" officers of the Maritime Trade Office, as well as imperial clan members.
▲ The eaves of the Guanyue Temple, a microcosm of the convergence of Central Plains culture in Quanzhou. Photo/Yue Zhiqiang
Notably, the Maritime Trade Office, located on the banks of the Jinjiang River south of Quanzhou, was equivalent to today's national customs, reflecting the importance and demand for overseas trade during the Song Dynasty.
▲ The ruins of the Song Dynasty Quanzhou Maritime Trade Office. This was once the commercial and trade "brain" of Quanzhou. Photo/VCG
The imperial clan members came from the Southern Outer Clan Office. They were a "high-consumption group" that migrated here after the fall of the Northern Song Dynasty. Beyond their spending habits, they directly participated in the construction of this great port by serving as officials, engaging in trade, and building port facilities.
▲ A millennium of construction has left behind an ancient Quanzhou city as red as fire. Photo/Yue Zhiqiang
They prayed for favorable weather and the opportunities brought from afar. In the 7th century, the Arabs established a vast empire spanning Asia, Africa, and Europe, simultaneously ushering in their own Age of Exploration. In the maritime network they wove, Quanzhou was a crucial node along the Chinese coast—far from the central authority, it commanded the key transportation routes of East Asian seas. The biannual monsoons also facilitated the voyages of trading fleets.
The Arabs brought spices, goods, advanced astronomy, and calendars. Their shipbuilding techniques were exchanged with the people of Quanzhou. Many descendants of Arabs even traveled from afar to settle in Quanzhou. In the early 13th century, a merchant named Pu Shougeng, descended from Arabs who had moved from Guangzhou, even rose to the position of Commissioner of the Maritime Trade Office (the highest official in charge of Quanzhou's foreign maritime trade) and later became the de facto ruler of Quanzhou.
▲ Red mansions (Hong Da Cuo) are a typical sight in Quanzhou's old city. The intersection in the picture shows the Chaotian Gate, rebuilt in 2001 in the architectural style of the Song and Yuan dynasties. Photo/Chen Yingjie
When Marco Polo set sail from Quanzhou's Citong Port in 1292 to begin his 17-year journey back home, Quanzhou had already become the largest port in the East. In the accounts of many merchants, it was met with great admiration:
Outside the city, the estuaries of the Jinjiang and Luoyang rivers were vast and mighty, with a long coastline and numerous excellent harbors. The rivers and seas were filled with tens of thousands of ships—some laden with Eastern silk and瓷器 (porcelain) bound for foreign lands, others arriving from Arabia, India, Ceylon, Java, Frankish territories, and all corners of the world.
▲ Quanzhou West Street, brightly lit even at night. Photo by Zhao Xiaofei
Within the city, the bustling markets evoke the feng shui layout of Chang'an during the Tang Dynasty, where spices and jewelry converged: pepper, sandalwood, camphor, dates, aloeswood, jade, and gemstones... Even at night, the streets remained ablaze with light, as oil lamps and torches illuminated the entire city, making it as radiant as day. Hence the description:
The open and inclusive urban atmosphere gives Quanzhou a magical and eclectic character. People from all over the world brought intangible beliefs and cultures to Quanzhou, making it a "World Religious Museum"—
On today's Tumen Street, the Qingjing Mosque, built by Arabs in the 11th century as China's first mosque, stands side by side with the Confucian Temple established during the Song Dynasty. On West Street, the Kaiyuan Temple, founded in the second year of the Chuigong era of the Tang Dynasty (686 AD), faces the Song Dynasty Laozi statue on Qingyuan Mountain from afar. In the southern suburbs' Cao'an Temple, the world's only surviving statue of Mani the Buddha of Light brings the fantasy of the "Cult of the Bright King" from martial arts novels into reality...
▲ Indian mythological elements on the stone pillars of the rear corridor of Kaiyuan Temple's main hall, depicting the ten-armed Narasimha. Photo by Fang Tuomasi
At the heart of this museum is the Kaiyuan Temple, the largest Buddhist temple in Fujian Province. Having withstood an magnitude 8 earthquake and countless typhoons, it has stood tall for a millennium, making it a legend in itself.
Swipe left to explore the miraculous thousand-year-old Kaiyuan Temple.
As for the Indian mythological legends on the temple's pillars and the possible Egyptian-inspired sphinxes on the stone carvings, these are no longer rare. More noteworthy are the twenty-four "Flying Apsaras" on the brackets of the Mahavira Hall—these Buddhist celestial musicians, with wings reminiscent of Christian angels, upon closer inspection, resemble the Dunhuang flying deities in their dance postures.
Dunhuang, where the four major ancient civilizations converged, thus met the sea through the far reaches of the overland Silk Road. The city's millennia-old landmarks—the East and West Pagodas of Kaiyuan Temple—symbolize Quanzhou as another "crossroads of civilizations." Though on the periphery of central China, Quanzhou stood at the center of the maritime stage, shining brightly throughout history.
▲ The East and West Pagodas of Kaiyuan Temple are cultural landmarks of Quanzhou. Photo by Zhao Xiaofei
Quanzhou People's "Seventy-Two Transformations" to the World
In 1357, Quanzhou was plunged into a warlord conflict led primarily by the Persian "Ispah Army." The turmoil lasted over a decade, leading to the decline of Quanzhou Port. The four-century history of the "City of Light" came to an abrupt halt, yet its profound impact on China and the world endured.
▲ Quanzhou's port, with countless ships ready to set sail, remains bustling. Image/VCG
Quanzhou is the epitome of China's maritime spirit. Few cities in China are as intimately connected to the ocean as Quanzhou—from folk culture to historical development, from daily life to regional economy, from ordinary people to myriad deities, its entire destiny is intertwined with the sea.
When the Wei and Jin dynasties saw robes and crowns fleeing south, displaced and lost,
She was the umbilical cord linking the central plains to the frontiers.
When the prosperous Tang Dynasty bustled with splendor and nations came to pay tribute,
She stood alongside Guangzhou as the starting point of the Maritime Silk Road.
When the Great Song Dynasty witnessed commercial rise and economic prosperity,
She was China's global maritime trade center.
▲ Today's Quanzhou coastline is still dotted with excellent harbors, with vast waters stretching under the sky.
Marco Polo of the Yuan Dynasty called it the "world's largest port." Zheng He of the Ming Dynasty sailed to the Western Seas seven times, largely following the routes of Quanzhou merchants. Even in the late Qing Dynasty, when Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan opened their eyes to the world, they referred to the exploratory records of Quanzhou people from the Song and Yuan dynasties.
Its history is a tale of "rising from adversity" — transitioning from the mountains to the ocean. Historically, Quanzhou faced two major geographical disadvantages that could have left it impoverished and weak. Yet, the people of Quanzhou successfully turned these into opportunities, creating a "maritime legend" for China.
▲ Quanzhou's Xiangzhi Port remains densely packed with boats even today.
Viewed from the perspective of all China, compared to coastal hubs like Guangzhou and Ningbo or provincial administrative centers like Fuzhou and Hangzhou, Quanzhou's first major disadvantage was its remote and mountainous location. However, this very geographical drawback of being "far from the emperor's reach" made it easier for Quanzhou to integrate into the maritime free trade system.
▲ Quanzhou, a corner of southeastern China.
For southern Fujian, the Quanzhou Plain has less arable land than the Zhangzhou Plain. Yet, it is Fujian's most populous city, with "high mountains, barren valleys, and no land to reclaim." Its second major disadvantage was its limited land and large population. Thus, while Zhangzhou people enjoyed pastoral lives, Quanzhou people had already begun venturing into the seas. Quanzhou is the epitome of southern Fujian's spirit: "Dare to strive, and you will win."
▲ Even today, Quanzhou people still rely on the ocean and are self-reliant.
From a global perspective, Quanzhou people's ocean-driven spirit of perseverance has continued from the Song and Yuan dynasties to the present, remaining vibrant and enduring. As vast as the world is, so far can Quanzhou people reach. Wherever there are Quanzhou people, the song "Dare to Strive, and You Will Win" is sung. "Three parts destiny, seven parts effort" — this is the underlying ethos of Quanzhou people's struggle.
▲ The "Buddha Explosion" custom in Yongchun County's Dapu, Quanzhou, praying for a year of peace and smooth sailing.
Since the Ming Dynasty, Quanzhou people began emigrating overseas in large numbers. Economic historian Kenneth Pomeranz emphasized in *The World That Trade Created* that Fujian, as a center of shipbuilding, fishing, and trade for over a thousand years, has long been a major player in shipping and commerce in Southeast Asia. Even before Europeans arrived, Fujian people (especially the Southern Min ethnic group) had established significant settlements and influence in Southeast Asia.
▲ Cai Cuo in Guanqiao, Nan'an, Quanzhou, was built by the renowned overseas Chinese Cai Zishen during the Guangxu era of the Qing Dynasty. It embodies the spirit of glorifying one's ancestors by "building a grand house."
"As early as the 17th century, the Chinese quarter in Manila was as large as those in New York or Philadelphia in the late 18th century."
In modern times, a hidden "Minnese Business Empire" exists. If you follow wealth rankings, you'll find that the richest individuals in Southeast Asian countries are often Minnan people. Countless figures like Tan Kah Kee and Aw Boon Haw built industries worldwide, emerging as "Rubber Kings," "Tobacco Kings," and "Shipping Kings." They not only influenced the world with their perseverance but also contributed to China's revolutionary cause. When glory faded and light returned to their homeland, they humbly retreated from fame, leaving their legacy to posterity — ultimately becoming maritime legends.
▲ Today, 7.2 million overseas Chinese of Quanzhou origin reside around the world.
For millennia, the tides of the world have continuously lapped against Quanzhou's shores. From the ocean to the land, from great ships to foreign-style buildings, and to emerging industries between the mountains and the sea, Quanzhou wears many faces, much like Sun Wukong with his "72 transformations." Quanzhou people are passionate, bold, and daring, yet they also understand the value of returning home in glory while remaining humble. Quanzhou's character is complex, akin to Sun Wukong's blend of "immortal and chivalrous."
This is the maritime character that flourished from the barren foundations of agrarian culture. Quanzhou connects the land and the sea, links China and the world, served as a global trade hub during the Song and Yuan dynasties, and holds potential as a future Pacific powerhouse. Whether viewed along the horizontal axis of geography or the vertical axis of time, it has left an indelible and dazzling mark on the process of globalization.
A World Cultural Heritage site, southern Fujian's Sun Wukong — Quanzhou is truly deserving.
▲ Luoyang Bridge, built during the Northern Song Dynasty, spans the river. The Moonlight Bodhisattva at the bridgehead silently watches over Quanzhou's millennia of stories.
Image Editors | Naifu, Tao
China Heritage 2021.07
Beautiful Fujian Beautiful Ocean Strait Publishing and Distribution Group
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