Xi'an or Luoyang: Which Truly Deserves the Title of China's Ancient Capital?

During the recent summer vacation, with the release of the movie "Chang'an 30,000 Miles," cities like Xi'an, and even Yangzhou and Wuhan, rode a wave of "traffic buzz" from the glorious Tang Dynasty a millennium ago. Yet beneath Chang'an's brilliance, whether intentionally or not, the film notably overlooked a city of equal historical weight to Xi'an:

To witness the rise and fall of ancient and modern times, look no further than Luoyang!

Photo/Tuchong Creative, Photographer/Liu Xia

In China's 5,000-year history, many cities claim the title of ancient capital, but only Xi'an and Luoyang—this "love-hate duo"—truly compete for the "top" spot. Yet as the saying goes, "In literature, there is no first; in martial arts, no second." Luoyang and Xi'an are equals, each representing the trajectory of China's grand history in different eras.

During the Han and Tang dynasties, China's historical peaks of power, Xi'an (Chang'an) and Luoyang long stood as dual capitals, the east and west pillars of the empire. In the Tang era, environmental degradation from overdevelopment in the Guanzhong Plain forced emperors to repeatedly relocate their courts to Luoyang to "seek food" (or "mooch meals"), easing Xi'an's grain shortages—even Emperor Gaozong himself died in Luoyang.

The "Western Gate" of Luoyang's old city: Lijing Gate

Like Luoyang, repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt.

Luoyang once shone with unparalleled glory, a magnet for 13 dynasties to establish their capitals, where 105 emperors ruled, forming China's medieval political and economic axis alongside Chang'an. Yet it also faced utter desolation, reduced to ashes in war multiple times.

Luoyang's urban evolution mirrors the rise and fall of ancient Chinese dynasties. The "Divine Capital" of Wu Zetian's era marked Luoyang's brightest "highlight." The towering Tian Tang and Ming Tang—possibly over 100 meters tall—defined its skyline, justifying its alias as "Zhongguo" (China) and its title as the "Divine Capital": a one-of-a-kind, sacred heartland metropolis.

The grandeur of the Tang Dynasty, a peerless divine capital

Tang-era Luoyang, also called the Eastern Capital, rivaled Chang'an in status. After Emperor Gaozong fell ill, Empress Wu Zetian took power, renamed it the Divine Capital, and elevated Luoyang above Chang'an.

The Tang Ming Tang is considered history's largest wooden structure,

rebuilt today in a smaller form after its destruction.

In 690 AD, Wu Zetian proclaimed herself emperor, replacing the Tang with the Zhou Dynasty. To distinguish her rule from the Li family's Tang, she made the Divine Capital her seat and "relocated hundreds of thousands of households from seven prefectures to populate Luoyang," expanding the city unprecedentedly. Luoyang's commerce and industry also peaked, attracting Hu, Persian, and Central Asian traders—even Sassanian silver coins have been unearthed.

The rebuilt Tian Tang in the Sui-Tang Luoyang National Heritage Park, reconstructed in recent years.

Wu Zetian adored Luoyang, not only ruling there but also spending her final years there, passing away in the Xianju Hall of Shangyang Palace. She revered the Luo River as divine, holding grand ceremonies during "Luo River Autumn Winds," erecting temples and steles, and bestowing honorary titles.

The Longmen Grottoes on West Mountain took over 400 years to reach their current form.

Under Wu Zetian, Longmen's sculpting peaked, synthesizing the artistry of Dunhuang and Yungang Grottoes. With peace and prosperity, carving statues was no longer elite privilege—commoners widely participated.

Longmen Grottoes still bear the Tang's majestic imprint.

Among Longmen's carvings, the finest and grandest remain the imperial grottoes. The most renowned masterpiece is the Vairocana Buddha niche (Fengxian Temple), commissioned by Emperor Gaozong. Its principal statue, the Vairocana Buddha, is Longmen's tallest, with a serene, elegant visage—legend says it was modeled after Wu Zetian's face.

The Great Vairocana Buddha was carved during the reign of Empress Wu Zetian.

After Wu Zetian's death, the glory of the Divine Capital dimmed. The grand structures of Luoyang—the imperial palace, the Mingtang, the Tiantang, and the Tianzhu—were all destroyed. The An Lushan Rebellion further devastated Luoyang. According to the *Old Book of Tang*, the city was left with "palaces burned, barely one in ten remaining," most structures reduced to foundations or even completely vanished, a lamentable sight.

Since its founding, Luoyang has been regarded as the ideal imperial capital due to its central location in "the middle of the world." Yet, this also made it a strategic military stronghold since ancient times. Extreme prosperity accompanied by extreme destruction seems to have been Luoyang's fate.

It became the "heaven-made mighty capital" contested by military strategists.

Born with a golden spoon in its mouth, sitting right at the "center of the world."

When Chinese civilization was in its infancy, Luoyang was a child born alongside it, cradling a golden spoon.

Located in the heart of the Nine Provinces, its terrain was unmatched under heaven.

This "golden spoon" was its superior geographical position. From a broad perspective, it lay at the core of the Nine Provinces, the "center of the world," and the "earliest China." Situated on the southern bank of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, it was a hub for east-west and north-south transportation, with waterways and roads extending in all directions, securing its dominance over the Central Plains.

The Daimei Mountain in the northwest corner of Luoyang stands with the Yellow River behind it.

From a narrower perspective, it faced the Yique Gate to the south, leaned against the Mang Mountains to the north, had the strategic Hulao and Chenggao passes to the east, and was guarded by the Hangu and Xiaomian defiles to the west. Surrounded by natural barriers, it was praised since antiquity as "cradled by rivers and mountains, its terrain unmatched under heaven."

The Longmen (Yique Gate), resembling a natural gateway, is traversed by the Yi River.

Nestled among mountains and rivers, Luoyang sits in the fertile and densely irrigated Yiluo Basin, where the Yi and Luo Rivers meander, ensuring abundant grain yields to sustain its dense population.

The Xiaolangdi Reservoir north of Luoyang is hailed as the "Little Thousand Islands Lake."

With this "golden spoon," ancient Chinese settlers valued the area early on. The ruins of the Erlitou, Yanshi Shang City, Eastern Zhou Royal City, Han-Wei Ancient City, and Sui-Tang Luoyang stretch along the Luo River—a rare spectacle of "five capitals converging in Luoyang."

Along the Luo River, multiple dynasties established their capitals in Luoyang.

Over 3,800 years ago, urban settlements emerged in the Luoyang region. The Erlitou cultural site, though debated, is considered by some scholars as the capital of the Xia dynasty. Not far northeast of Erlitou, Xibo served as the founding capital of the Shang dynasty.

The palace city of the Erlitou ruins is regarded as China's earliest "Forbidden City."

Photo/Li Wenbo, Design/Wu Jiuyang

Much of the history from the Xia and Shang periods remains shrouded in mystery, and the identity of Luoyang's ancient inhabitants is unclear. It was only after the establishment of the Western Zhou that Luoyang's role as a royal capital became clearer through historical records.

The Western Zhou's capital was Haojing, near present-day Xi'an, far from the Central Plains. To consolidate rule, the Duke of Zhou, brother of King Wu, built two cities in today's Luoyang: Wangcheng to the west and Chengzhou to the east, collectively called Luoyi. The Duke of Zhou praised it as "the center of the world, equidistant for tribute from all directions," exuding imperial grandeur.

The statue of Duke Zhou constructing Luoyi at Zhouwangcheng Square.

After seven years of regency, Duke Zhou returned power to King Cheng of Zhou, who then resided in Chengzhou for a long time. To emphasize the importance of Chengzhou, King Cheng also moved the Nine Tripods, symbols of royal authority, to Chengzhou. It is said that the Nine Tripods were transported into Luoyang through what is now the Dingding Gate, leaving behind the later poetic line: "The majestic capital, the place where the tripods were settled, stood as the revered center of all states."

The Western Zhou beast-faced square tripod unearthed at Beiyao, Luoyang.

A representative example of Zhou dynasty bronze ritual vessels.

During the Western Zhou period, Luoyang was more like a secondary capital. It became the formal royal capital after the "national-level" prank of the Beacon Fiasco. With the Western Zhou and Haojing destroyed, King Ping of Zhou moved the capital to Luoyi's Wangcheng, marking the beginning of the Eastern Zhou. Thanks to the Western Zhou's groundwork, Luoyi quickly assumed the role of a political center, allowing the Zhou dynasty to continue for centuries after the eastward move.

Tragically, the realm fragmented, and the Zhou king could no longer control the chaos among the feudal lords. While Luoyi remained quiet, wars raged beyond its walls, leaving the king to sit helplessly on his throne, feigning ignorance.

According to Zhou rites, "the Son of Heaven rides with six horses," and today, chariot and horse pits of the "Son of Heaven's six-horse carriage" have been discovered.

After the fall of the Zhou dynasty, the political center of the Central Plains alternated between Chang'an and Luoyang. From the Qin to the Western Han, the political center returned to the Guanzhong region, while Luoyang briefly became the fief of Lü Buwei, the Qin chancellor. Two centuries later, the Eastern Han once again established its capital in Luoyang.

Digging up cultural relics with a single shovel is no rarity in Luoyang.

After the Eastern Han, the Central Plains became divided, and Luoyang, as the capital, was repeatedly destroyed. Each time the city was set ablaze, it suffered devastating losses.

During the Eastern Han, Luoyang's urban construction, palaces, and towers were grand in scale, and commerce flourished. However, this prosperity was short-lived. By the late Eastern Han, war ravaged the land, and Luoyang was severely damaged. Dong Zhuo forced Emperor Xian of Han to move the capital to Chang'an, "relocating millions of Luoyang's population to Chang'an." Later, he set Luoyang ablaze, "burning all palaces, temples, government offices, and homes, leaving nothing within two hundred li."

Once one of the largest capitals in China and the world.

During the Jian'an era, Cao Zhi accompanied his father Cao Cao on a westward campaign and passed through Luoyang. In his poem "Farewell to Ying Shi," he wrote:

"Ascending the northern Mang slope, gazing afar at Luoyang's mountains."

"How desolate Luoyang is, its palaces all burned to ashes."

"Walls crumbled and broken, thorns reaching to the sky."

This was the true portrayal of Luoyang at the time. Due to its extreme desolation, it was unfit to serve as the capital. Shortly after entering Luoyang, Cao Cao took Emperor Xian and moved to Xuchang.

The Cao Wei grand tomb at Xizhu Village, Luoyang.

By the Cao Wei era, the realm saw some peace, and Luoyang flourished again. Emperor Wen, Cao Pi, relocated tens of thousands of households from Hebei and other regions to Luoyang, rebuilding its palaces on the ruins of the Eastern Han and establishing it as the capital. When the Western Jin replaced the Wei, Luoyang remained the capital, once again bustling with prosperity. However, this also brought extravagant aristocratic lifestyles, such as the famous rivalry between Shi Chong and Wang Kai, which took place in Luoyang.

Figure 1: Stone tablets unearthed from the Cao Wei grand tomb; Figure 2: Murals inside the Cao Wei grand tomb.

The fleeting prosperity vanished like smoke with the "War of the Eight Princes." In 303 AD, Zhang Fang massacred 10,000 innocent civilians in Luoyang. In 311, Liu Yao of the Xiongnu tribe captured Luoyang, allowing his soldiers to loot extensively, excavate tombs, and burn palaces, ancestral temples, and homes. Over 30,000 officials and commoners were slaughtered. After nearly a century of development, Luoyang suffered another catastrophe, reduced to ruins.

The Yongning Temple Pagoda was the landmark structure of Luoyang during the Northern Wei Dynasty.

Some claim it reached a height of 136.7 meters.

During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Northern Wei unified the north, and the political and economic center shifted southward, prompting Emperor Xiaowen to move the capital to Luoyang. In peacetime, Luoyang flourished once again. People of various ethnicities settled here, and merchants from the Western Regions came to trade. "All the rare treasures of the world could be found here."

A clay sculpted Buddha face unearthed from the ruins of Northern Wei Luoyang.

Its lips curl into a mysterious and enchanting smile.

History seemed to repeat itself—when the Northern Wei capital moved north, Luoyang was abandoned and ravaged by war again. "The palaces, temples, and homes inside and outside Luoyang were almost entirely burned, with only a tenth or two remaining," and "the city's buildings were utterly consumed by flames." After the fall of the Northern Wei, the ancient city of Han-Wei Luoyang was also deserted.

By the Sui Dynasty, China was reunified after four centuries of division, and Emperor Yang of Sui rebuilt the eastern capital. In less than a year, the new city was largely completed, and tens of thousands of wealthy merchants and thousands of artisans were relocated from across the nation. By then, Luoyang's scale far surpassed that of the former Zhou Dynasty royal city and the Han-Wei ruins.

The 2800-acre Sui-Tang Luoyang City Ruins Botanical Garden.

To improve Luoyang's transportation links, Emperor Yang of Sui also constructed the world-famous Grand Canal, enabling the continuous flow of grain, silk, and other goods via waterways from the Yellow and Yangtze River basins to Luoyang. After its completion, Luoyang became a hub of land and water transport, with unimpeded river traffic. The Sui Dynasty's development of Luoyang laid the foundation for its later glory as the "Divine Capital" of the Tang Dynasty.

It was because of its rivers that Luoyang was repeatedly destroyed and revived.

The emperors, generals, and the rise and fall of ancient Luoyang are now beyond our imagination, but much of the culture and philosophy born here, nourished by the Yi and Luo Rivers, still benefits people today.

As early as the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, Luoyang, as the imperial capital, preserved abundant ancient texts, particularly the official documents, regulations, and legal codes of the Western Zhou. Laozi once served as the archivist of the Zhou Dynasty, managing the royal library in Luoyang. The majestic "Sacred Taoist Mountain," Laojun Mountain, is said to be where Laozi once meditated.

The snow-covered golden summit of Laojun Mountain—a sight Laozi might have witnessed.

Confucianism also originated here. Historical records state that Confucius traveled all the way from the State of Lu to Luoyang in a horse-drawn carriage to study.

The White Horse Temple witnessed the first monks arriving in the Central Plains.

Later, Buddhism spread to China and first took root in Luoyang. The White Horse Temple, known as the "Cradle of Chinese Buddhism," was built during the Eastern Han Dynasty and is the oldest Buddhist temple and the first government-established monastery in China.

For two thousand years, the White Horse Temple has never been relocated.

Luoyang has long been a city of talents. During the Wei-Jin period, when Ji Kang was sentenced to death, 3,000 Luoyang scholars petitioned to have him as their teacher, but their plea was denied. Before his execution at Luoyang's eastern market, the city was fortunate to hear the final performance of "Guangling San." The literary masterpiece "Ode to the Three Capitals," which took Zuo Si ten years to compose, became an instant sensation in Luoyang, with wealthy families vying to copy it, giving rise to the famous phrase "Luoyang's paper became expensive."

The epitaphs at the Thousand Tang Zhi Zhai Museum—a glimpse into Luoyang's cultural legacy.

After the Song Dynasty, with the eastward and southward shift of China's political and economic centers, coupled with the blockage of the canal waterways, both Luoyang and Chang'an declined. Even so, Luoyang remained a long-standing cultural and intellectual hub.

This was the birthplace of Neo-Confucianism during the Song Dynasty. The brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, masters of Neo-Confucianism, were natives of Luoyang. They lectured and wrote here, founding the Luo School. Additionally, figures like Sima Guang and Ouyang Xiu also resided in Luoyang. Much of Sima Guang’s *Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Governance* and the initial drafts of Ouyang Xiu’s *New Book of Tang* and *New History of the Five Dynasties* were completed in Luoyang.

The Drum Tower in Luoyang’s old city was first built during the Ming Dynasty.

Time has passed, and Luoyang has changed countless times, but history and culture have settled into its soil. Many customs today have been inherited over millennia and are deeply rooted. The vicissitudes of history and the splendor of culture linger in the speech of Luoyang’s people.

A day for Luoyang locals often begins with a bowl of soup. Though simple, this bowl carries the ceremonial grandeur of a noble banquet. In the culture of soup, the 24-course "Water Banquet" is Luoyang’s unique and authentic soup feast. The first dish, "Luoyang Swallow Dish," is said to have been named by Empress Wu Zetian.

Peony Swallow Dish: A radish’s "pinnacle of life."

Photo/handou5, provided by Huitu Network.

Beef soup, mutton soup, donkey meat soup, tofu soup, meatball soup, "no-flip" soup… Though not delicacies, Luoyang’s soups trace their origins to ancient aristocratic cuisine. Millennia of history simmer in these pots: In the ancestral temples of Luoyi, massive ceremonial cauldrons stood solemnly arrayed, always filled with livestock and broth. The aroma of soup wafted ceaselessly before the ancestral tablets.

Today, there are no fewer than a thousand soup shops in Luoyang’s urban area. A pot of soup that satisfies old Luoyang locals is meticulously prepared. The rich, fragrant broth pairs with various breads, providing both sustenance and ample nutrition.

The Luoyang mutton soup that even Baili Erlang adored.

Beyond soups, traditional snacks like Mati Street wontons, Luoyang rice noodles, jiang noodles, stir-fried bianduo, fried salted snacks, and Xin’an County steamed dumplings abound, all stemming from long-standing local customs.

"If you wish to understand the rise and fall of past and present, look no further than Luoyang." The city’s tumultuous history mirrors China’s cycles of war and peace, prosperity and decline. Thousands of years of city-building and capital-establishing have left behind a vast cultural treasure trove for modern generations.

The elegance of the Divine Capital still lingers in Luoyang’s streets and corners.

Top image/Visual China, bottom photo by Wang Yuwen.

In Luoyang, especially on the way to historic sites, you’ll often encounter eloquent locals speaking in the Luoyang dialect, their pride unmistakable. Facing visitors from all directions, Luoyang’s people are confident and inclusive. Though the era of the Divine Capital ended over a thousand years ago, its spirit has never left this land.

Image editor | =G Li Xiaoer.