Hi——Ma——La——Ya——
The world's highest group of snow-capped peaks
(Please view horizontally, the Himalayas; photographer@Tianshu & annotation@Lao J)
The world's deepest group of alpine canyons
(Please view horizontally, the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon; photographer@Xiao Feng)
Beneath the ice and snow, within the canyons
Countless biological species thrive
(Alpine vegetation zone in the Kama Valley, eastern slope of Mount Everest; photographer@Nanka)
What makes it the king of mountains?
On land, it is accompanied by the relative uplift of linear mountain ranges
Generation after generation of mountains rise from the ground
The most massive plate convergence on Earth
Belongs to the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates
(Earth's plate movements over the past 200 million years; the initial collision time between the Indian and Eurasian plates remains debated, mainly estimated between 65-55 million years ago; animation by@Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
Rock layers continuously fold, fracture, and stack
Giving birth to the world's highest and youngest mountain range
(Please view horizontally, topographic map of the Himalayas; mapping by@Chen Jingyi & Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
The main ridge of the range averages over 6,000 meters in elevation
10 of the world's 14 independent peaks above 8,000 meters are located here
83 of the 169 independent peaks above 7,000 meters
Leaving all other mountain ranges far behind
(Please view horizontally; ownership of independent peaks above 7000m; mapping by Chen Jingyi & Chen Sui/Institute of Planetology)
The world's highest peak is about to reach a new elevation
(Mount Everest, a new survey may update its height; photographer @ Xiaofeng)
(The left peak in the image below is Lhotse, and the right is Everest; photographer @ Yang Jian)
(Makalu; photographer @ Lu Yuchun)
(Cho Oyu; photographer @ Xiaofeng)
Together, they form the world's highest mountain cluster
(Everest and surrounding peaks; photographer @ Xingyingbuli)
120-125 km to the east and west
Kangchenjunga, standing at 8,586 meters
(Kangchenjunga, the easternmost 8,000-meter peak in the world; photographer @ Xingyingbuli)
Shishapangma, with an elevation of 8,027 meters
(Shishapangma; photographer @ Xiaofeng)
Manaslu, the world's eighth-highest peak
(Manaslu; photographer @ Tianshu)
Annapurna, the world's tenth-highest peak
(Annapurna I; photographer @ Tianshu)
And Dhaulagiri, the world's seventh-highest peak
(Northeast slope of Dhaulagiri, viewed from the old Zhongba County along National Highway G219; photographer @ Tianshu)
These nine independent 8,000-meter peaks are all concentrated in the central section of the main ridge
Located at the westernmost end of the Himalayas
(Nanga Parbat; photographer: @Tianshu)
Such as the 7,952m Gyachung Kang
(Gyachung Kang, the highest 7,000m-class peak; photographer: @Luyuchun)
The 7,782m Namcha Barwa
(Namcha Barwa; photographer: @Xiaofeng)
(Kula Kangri and Karjiang Peak; photographer: @Xiaofeng)
(Kamet Peak; photographer: @Tianshu)
And numerous 6,000m-class peaks
(Ama Dablam, 6,814m; photographer: @Tianshu)
This majesty stems from its unparalleled
Mountain temperatures gradually decrease with increasing altitude
Above 4,500-5,000m
The average annual temperature drops below 0°C
The summit of Everest can even experience extreme temperatures below -50°C
Ice and snow persist year-round, accumulating to form glaciers
Thus giving rise to remarkable low-latitude glacier clusters
(Glacier clusters at the Bhutan-China border captured from space; image source: @NASA)
(Chomo Lonzo; photographer: @Li Jian)
As if to bar all life forms from entering
(Schematic diagram of atmospheric oxygen partial pressure variation with altitude; illustration by Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
And the glaciers themselves are fraught with dangers
Like an "Ice Wall" upgraded by N times
Naturally blocking the exchange of life between north and south
(Himalayan winter migratory birds in flight; photographer: Hu Shu)
It also makes the environments on the northern and southern flanks vastly different
Carrying abundant moisture from the Indian Ocean
But the main ridge of the Himalayas, with an average elevation exceeding 6,000m
Is a barrier too high for water vapor molecules to cross
They eventually cool and condense into precipitation
Falling heavily on the southern flank of the Himalayas
(Schematic of precipitation formation in the Himalayas; illustration by Zheng Borong/Planet Research Institute)
When the air currents finally cross the main ridge to the northern flank
(Schematic of July precipitation distribution in the Himalayas; illustration by Chen Jingyi & Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
The southern flank of the Himalayas can nurture
(Lush forests on the southern flank of the Himalayas, with Fish Tail Peak in the distance; image source: Visual China Group)
Mostly covered by grasslands and meadows
(Grasslands on the northern slope of Mount Naimona'nyi; photographer: Sun Yan)
The central section of the Himalayas has the highest main ridge elevation
Even the types of glaciers are influenced by this
The glacier moves rapidly, with abundant moraines and crevasses
(Khumbu Glacier on the south slope of Mount Everest; photographer: Liu Lei)
(Glacier on the north slope of the Himalayas; photographer: Li Heng)
The prevailing westerlies at mid-latitudes shift southward
Forced to diverge due to the blocking of the Tibetan Plateau
One branch detours around the southern flank of the Himalayas
(Schematic of winter westerly divergence over the Tibetan Plateau; cartographers: Chen Jingyi & Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
The northern side of the Tibetan Plateau also experiences scarce precipitation
(Schematic of January precipitation distribution in the Himalayas; cartographers: Chen Jingyi & Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
The barrier effect of the Himalayan Mountains
Plays out in different ways across various regions
(Comparison of environments on the northern and southern sides of the eastern Himalayas; image source: NASA)
The Indian Plate continues to push northward
Will the Himalayas keep growing taller?
Will the ever-growing mountains become even more merciless?
The Himalayas still have the potential to grow taller
But this growth is not limitless
Attacking the king's body, altering the king's appearance
For a mountain range as high as the Himalayas
Sunlight, wind, glaciers, flowing water, and living organisms
They continuously weather and erode the mountain body
Continuous uplift of approximately 20-25 km
At least 12 km-thick rock layers have been eroded and removed
The mountain's height did not grow to a more terrifying scale
(Schematic diagram of mountain uplift and erosion; this figure is a simplified model without incorporating stratigraphic deformation effects; illustration by Zheng Borong & Yunwu Kongcheng/Planet Research Institute)
External forces do not erode the mountain uniformly
The erosive power of glaciers and rivers far exceeds others
They will further reshape the mountain's appearance
Flowing glaciers are the absolute dominant force
(Island Peak Glacier; photographer: Qu Zihua)
(Confluence of Lower Barun Glacier and Upper Lang Glacier; photographer: Chen Jianfeng)
More like showcasing their own combat prowess
(Mount Manaslu; photographer: Nanka)
Especially on the southern flank of the Himalayas
The destructive power of flowing water reaches its peak
(Gullies on the southern slope of the eastern Himalayas; image source: NASA)
The eastern Himalayas and the eastern Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains
Cause warm, moist air to converge and precipitation to surge
Greatly enhancing the river's headward erosion capability
The Brahmaputra River in the funnel-shaped valley cuts through the mountain body
Not only has it shaped the world's deepest canyon
but also captured the Yarlung Tsangpo River as its source
(Please view horizontally, Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon; photographer@Qiu Menghan)
Many rivers originally confined to the southern flank of the Himalayas
along with those formed before the mountain uplift
dozens of rivers flow in a north-south direction
(Himalayan river system distribution map; cartography@Chen Jingyi & Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
Dividing the Himalayas and the Karakoram
(Indus River, whose upper source is the Sengge Tsangpo, also known as the Lion Spring River; image source@VCG)
Divided into eastern, central, and western sections
(Yadong River, also known as Kangbu Maqu or Chumbi River; photographer@Xie Hong)
(Majia Tsangpo, also known as the Peacock River; photographer@Xiang Wenjun)
Xixiabangma Qu, Niang Qu, Lhozhag Qu
Pum Qu, Mazhang Tsangpo, Gyirong Tsangpo
Langqen Tsangpo, Jiazagangga River, and many other valleys
are all deep canyons with cutting depths exceeding 2000-3000m
(Po Qu, whose upper reaches are the Mazhang Tsangpo; photographer@Yang Jian)
Not only does it possess the most deeply incised canyon group on Earth
but also provides a pathway for moisture to move northward
along with numerous medium-incised valleys of varying sizes
Greatly increases the complexity of the environment
Coupled with the moisture from the warm and humid South Asian air currents
Ranging from low-mountain tropical monsoon rainforests to alpine ice and snow zones
A complete vertical natural zone of tropical monsoon mountains
Nearly concentrates everything from tropical jungles to polar regions
(Illustration of vertical natural distribution on the southern slope of the Himalayas; the southern slope has 8 natural zones, while the northern slope, due to its higher base elevation, has only 4; map by Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
Not only appears on the overall slopes of the mountain range
But also manifests in every specific valley
(Gyirong Valley; photographer: Ma Chunlin)
Also provides for different species of animals
Marbled cat, clouded leopard, Indian leopard, Bengal tiger
(Bengal tiger; animals migrate within certain ranges, and their habitats often overlap; photographer: Shang Rui)
Jungle cat, golden cat, leopard cat, common leopard
(Leopard cat; photographer: Peng Jiansheng)
All find their niches at different altitudes
Deserving the title "Museum of Felids"
(Eurasian lynx; photographer: Peng Jiansheng)
Also serves as a corridor for the dispersal of flora and fauna
Enabling both independent evolution and mutual exchange
Connecting different biogeographic regions as a critical link
Becoming a global biodiversity hotspot
(Please view horizontally. Global biodiversity hotspots are regions with rich biodiversity but also significant loss of original vegetation and severe environmental threats; map by Chen Jingyi & Chen Sui/Planet Research Institute)
Estimated over 10,000 species of higher plants
Such as Rosaceae, Orchidaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae
Rhododendron, Poppy, Gentian, Anemone, Iris, Corydalis
Primrose, Saxifrage, Edelweiss, and more
"The greatest treasure trove of world horticulture"
(Left column: Meconopsis horridula, Rheum nobile, Meconopsis concinna, photographer @Kalavinka; right column: Saussurea aster, Paraquilegia microphylla, Diapensia himalaica [yellow-flowered], photographer @Peng Jiansheng)
Over 300 recorded species of mammals
(Himalayan langur; photographer @Liu Lu)
While the deeply incised or broad valleys
And their tributaries like the Nyangchu River, Yarlung River, etc.
On a small hilltop east of Zedang Town in the Yarlung Valley
The first royal palace in Tibetan history
(Yumbulagang; photographer @Wu Yanping)
Gave rise to the Zhangzhung and Guge civilizations
(Khyunglung Ngulkhar, the capital of the ancient Zhangzhung Kingdom; photographer @Ding Junhao)
Are home to the Lhoba, Monpa, and Tibetan peoples
As well as the Yarlung Tibetans, Mizo, Sherpa, and Limi
Tharu, Lepcha, and Sherpa peoples
(Tibetan people in festive attire; photographer: Wen Zuopei)
the borders of Nepal, China, India, and Bhutan
In recent years, due to their exceptional performance in mountaineering
(Sherpa high-altitude guides climbing Mount Everest; photographer: Gao Cheng)
Today, they belong to China, Pakistan
India, Nepal, and Bhutan—five countries in total
Almost entirely located within the Himalayan mountain range
are distributed in the valleys and basins among the mountains
(Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, surrounded by mountains; photographer: Chen Jianfeng)
and developed distinct religious cultures
including Buddhism, Bon, Hinduism, and Jainism
as well as Tibetan Buddhism, which emerged from the fusion of Buddhism and Bon
(Mount Kailash, though not part of the Himalayas, is a sacred mountain recognized by religions originating on both sides of the Himalayas; photographer: Xiang Wenjun)
thus becoming a corridor for north-south exchanges
was the official route from Nepal to Tibet
Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal entered Tibet through here
and envoys of the Tang Dynasty once traveled this way to India
(Gyirong Valley; photographer: Shan Feng)
also a vital thoroughfare for north-south travel
(China-Nepal Friendship Bridge, spanning the Mazhang Zangbo River; photographer: Hu Shu)
People with "faith" in the snow-capped mountains
(Please turn your phone horizontally to view; photographer captures sunrise on Lhotse; photographer @ Zong Jingning)
(Mount Everest climbing; photographer @ Han Zijun)
Also includes those who explore this mountain range
(Photographer @ Wang Qiang/Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences)
(From Mao Zedong's "Spring in a Pleasure Garden: Snow")
(Full map of the Himalayas; cartography @ Zheng Borong & Chen Jingyi/Planetary Research Institute)
Images | Feng Chenyu, Yu Kuan, Xie Yuhan
Design | Zheng Borong, Chen Sui
Proofreading | Yun Wukongcheng, Chen Zhihao
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