Where Are the Volcanoes in China?
The upper reaches of the Bai River, a tributary of the Nemur River in Heilongjiang
(Text in quotes translated from Qing Dynasty Manchu historical records; Volcanoes and lava plains of Wudalianchi in Heilongjiang, with the rubble in the foreground being the lava plains, photographer @ Shen Min)
(Schematic diagram of the formation of Wudalianchi, cartography @ Zhao Bang/Planet Research Institute)
(Volcanoes, barrier lakes, and lava plains of Wudalianchi in Heilongjiang, photographer @ Huang Xuefeng)
Similar scenes have repeatedly unfolded across the land of China
Leaving behind many volcanoes and lava landforms
(Distribution map of Cenozoic volcanic groups and lava landforms in China. Due to the difficulty in tracing older volcanic landforms, the image mainly shows Cenozoic volcanoes from the past 65 million years, cartography @ Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
Thousands of volcanoes still stand around us
(Please view horizontally, Changbai Mountain's Tianchi Volcano is an active volcano and will erupt again in the future, photographer @ Xiang Xinping)
But they appear inconspicuous against the backdrop of mountains
(Sifang Mountain in the Nuomin River Volcanic Group of the Greater Khingan Range in Inner Mongolia. Its elevation is 933m, but it appears less towering amid the surrounding mountains, image source @ Huitu)
Making it difficult to draw special attention
(Niuxin Mountain in Youyu County, Shuozhou, Shanxi, is a volcanic remnant, photographer @ Jia Ruiju)
Yet they feel quite unfamiliar to China's volcanoes
What spectacular landscapes do they hold
And do they threaten our lives
In the Ashikule Basin of western Kunlun Mountain
Nearby PLA road construction teams witnessed it firsthand
The first eyewitness account of a volcanic eruption in New China
(Please view horizontally, this eruption was reported by the "Xinjiang Daily" on July 5, 1951. The image shows a schematic diagram of the Ashikule Basin and volcano locations in Yutian, Xinjiang, cartography @ Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
This mountain peak is named Ash Volcano
It features a sharp and prominent volcanic cone
The surrounding lava plains are covered by windblown sand
Showcasing the purest form of volcanic landscape
(Please view horizontally. As Ash Volcano did not erupt lava in 1951, some scholars question its authenticity. Photographer: Zhou Xiaocheng)
(Ulanhad Volcano Group, Chahar Right Rear Banner, Inner Mongolia. Photographer: Greatwj)
(Arshan Volcano Group, Greater Khingan Range, Inner Mongolia. The crater is surrounded by valleys covered with coniferous forests and lava flows. Photographer: Yang Xiao)
Tropical jungles clothe the volcano in eternal green
(Qiongbei Volcano Group, Hainan. Tropical jungle covers the volcanic landscape. Photographer: Fu Kun)
Vegetation alters the appearance of volcanic landscapes
(Moon Heaven Pool in the Arshan Volcano Group, Inner Mongolia, in early autumn. Photographer: Qiu Huining)
(Volcanic Heaven Pool in the Arshan Volcano Group, Inner Mongolia, in early winter. Photographer: Zhao Gaoxiang)
Craters after major eruptions are prone to collapse
(Schematic diagram of crater lake formation. Illustrator: Zhao Bang/Planet Research Institute)
It is the largest caldera in China
(Heaven Lake, Changbai Mountain, Jilin Province. Photographer: Liu Zhaoming)
When magma encounters large amounts of groundwater
Steam can blast deep craters into the ground
(Schematic diagram of maar lake formation. Illustrator: Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
(Sihailongwan, Longgang Volcano Group, Jingyu County, Baishan City, Jilin Province. It is the roundest among the local maar lakes. Photographer: Qing Xiaoxi)
(Please view horizontally. Hanlong Bay in the Longgang Volcanic Cluster, Jilin Province, is located in Huinan County, Tonghua City. It carves out a clearing amidst dense forests, photographer @ Qing Xiaoxi)
(A maar-type volcanic crater on the grasslands of Inner Mongolia, image source @ Visual China Group)
(Weathering processes and emerging landscapes of volcanic and lava landforms, illustration by @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The circular crater is the first to erode
(The Datong Volcanic Cluster in Datong City, Shanxi Province, where rainfall has left erosion marks on the volcanic cones, photographer @ Kang Hui)
The broken volcanic cones become even lower
(An unnamed volcanic remnant in the Qiangtang region of the Tibetan Plateau, photographer @ Xu Xianqiang)
(An ancient volcanic crater on the grasslands of Xilingol, Inner Mongolia, where some craters are nearly level with the ground, photographer @ Sun Jianxin)
Yet, within the brokenness lies wonder
The demise of volcanic cones often exposes volcanic necks
These are hardened rocks left in the magma conduits
(Illustration of volcanic neck formation, a product of severe weathering of volcanic cones, illustration by @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Volcanic necks formed from accumulated lava debris
(A volcanic neck on the Tibetan Plateau, standing abruptly with debris composition, image source @ Visual China Group)
(The ancient volcanic neck of Guizi Mountain in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, photographer @ Zhu Jinhua)
Uniform rocks undergo uniform cracking
Perpendicular to the cooling surface during uniform cooling
Forming polygonal stone columns resembling honeycombs
(Illustration of columnar jointing formation, often occurring in volcanic necks and thick lava flows, illustration by @ Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
They also frequently appear in lava plains or within lava flows
(Wangtian'e Volcano in Jilin's Shiwudaogou, where flowing water has carved through the valley lava flow, exposing columnar joints, photographer @ Cui Hanyu)
(The lava plateau in Xilingol Grassland Volcanic Geopark, Inner Mongolia, photographer @ Xu Bo)
(Please view horizontally, a lava plateau in the Hoh Xil volcanic group on the Tibetan Plateau, photographer @ Qin Hui)
Lava plateaus will turn into flat-topped hills
This is the near-extinct state of volcanic landforms
(Please view horizontally, Fangshan Mountain in Jiangning, Nanjing, Jiangsu, is a lava plateau, with the Dinglin Temple on the mountain, photographer @ Zhai Hongyu)
Lava plateaus and volcanic cones in coastal areas
are often submerged by seawater to form islands
Various internal structures are fully exposed by waves
(Taiwan's Penghu Islands are lava plateaus formed over 10 million years ago, later submerged by seawater, photographer @ Zhao Yi)
Volcanic craters can also be submerged into circular bays
(Please view horizontally, Nanwan in Weizhou Island, Beihai, Guangxi, is an ancient volcanic crater, photographer @ Liang Jie)
Forming coral sand islands guarding the vast sea borders
(Qilianyu in the Xisha Islands, South China Sea, these coral sand islands were originally volcanic islands, image source @ Visual China)
Numerous young or ancient volcanoes
create a series of spectacular landscapes
How did these volcanoes form?
The answer lies in the underground "magma factory"
Magma is stored in sac-like magma chambers
They originate from depths of 100–430 km underground
The mantle rocks here are on the verge of melting
When temperature, pressure, and composition change
(Schematic diagram of volcanic genesis and magma movement: after magma is generated in the asthenosphere, it converges into a magma chamber, illustration by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Slowly moving outward from the deep mantle
Reduced pressure lowers the melting point of rocks
Decompression melting occurs at asthenosphere depths
(Mantle plume schematic: high-temperature, high-pressure rocks from the deep rise to asthenosphere depths, where pressure drops generate magma, illustration by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
The Leiqiong volcanic cluster in Hainan and Guangdong
Includes numerous volcanoes in northern Hainan
(Volcanic cone in the suburbs of Haikou City, photographer: Zhou Xiujian)
(Please view horizontally: Huguangyan Maar Lake in Zhanjiang, Guangdong, covers an area of 2.3 km² and is China's largest extant maar lake, photographer: Lu Wen)
A larger mantle plume tore apart the South China Plate
The supervolcano erupted for 3 million years
Scattered across present-day Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi
(Distribution map of basalts in the Emeishan Large Igneous Province; "Province" is a term used to describe a massive geological structure, while "basalt" is a common type of volcanic lava, illustration by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
The basalt layers at Emeishan's Golden Summit in Sichuan
Record the encounter between the supervolcano and an ancient shallow sea
(Please view horizontally: The black basalt strata at Emeishan's Golden Summit are volcanic products, while the white limestone below formed in a shallow marine environment, indicating the volcano erupted from a shallow sea, photographer: Lü Fengxiao)
But mass-produced, assembly-line-style volcano creation
(Please view horizontally: Global distribution map of major Quaternary volcanic clusters, illustration by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
The mid-ocean ridge is where oceanic plates are formed.
It is the largest deep-sea volcanic belt on Earth.
Mantle rocks upwell and melt here on a massive scale.
Magma continuously erupts and cools into rock.
Causing the seafloor to spread outward on both sides.
(Schematic diagram of the mid-ocean ridge, where mantle rocks upwell and melt on a large scale, image source: BBC documentary "Earth: The Power of the Planet")
Many volcanoes are related to mid-ocean ridge activity.
Eventually transforming into numerous islands and reefs in the South China Sea.
(Schematic diagram of volcanoes and mid-ocean ridge distribution in the South China Sea, some volcanoes are deep-sea seamounts, while others evolve into coral islands, map by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
Trenches are where oceanic plates subduct and descend into the mantle.
A series of volcanoes are generated near the trenches.
(Schematic diagram of trench volcano formation, such volcanoes are distributed in chains along trenches, forming volcanic island arcs or continental volcanic chains, image source: BBC documentary "Earth: The Power of the Planet")
Taiwan, with its highly complex geological structure,
is influenced by two trenches to its north and south.
(Please view horizontally, schematic diagram of Taiwan and surrounding volcano distribution, except for the Penghu Islands, all other volcanoes in Taiwan are influenced by trenches, map by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
The Philippine Sea Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate,
Affecting the Datun, Keelung, and Guishan Island volcanic groups.
(Viewing Keelung Island from Keelung Mountain, both are part of the Keelung volcanic group, photographer: Lao J)
The South China Sea floor once subducted beneath the Philippine Sea Plate.
With Green Island and Orchid Island still floating in the sea.
"Qimei Island", "Yuemei Island", "Chengguang'ao Island", "Dulan Island"
transformed into a series of peaks along the Taitung Coastal Mountain Range
(Aerial view of the Taitung Coastal Mountain Range from north to south, with Shuliao Creek in the foreground and the Taitung Longitudinal Valley in the distance on the right. Image credit @ Visual China)
was influenced by the subduction of the ancient Pacific Plate
The subducted rocks remained trapped 600 km underground
continuously releasing water and carbon dioxide
promoting magma generation and eruption along fractures
creating volcanoes across eastern China
(Nanlongwan in the Longgang Volcanic Group, Jilin Province. Photographer @ Qing Xiaoxi)
yet spreading disaster and death worldwide
(Eruption of Fuego Volcano in Guatemala. Image credit @ Visual China)
(Lava flows spreading after a volcanic eruption in Iceland. Image credit @ Visual China)
(Eruption of Raikoke Volcano in Russia on June 22, 2019, with volcanic ash rising high and dispersing. Image credit @ NASA)
Ancient Roman cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were tragically buried
only to be rediscovered over a thousand years later
(The underground ruins of Herculaneum at the foot of Mount Vesuvius in Italy, with the modern city of Naples above. Image credit @ Visual China)
and will continue to occur in different regions around the world
If the Chinese people already feel unfamiliar with volcanoes
then they are even more unfamiliar with volcanic disasters
knowing little about their causes and lethality
(Schematic diagram of volcanic hazards, mapped by Yang Ning/Planet Research Institute)
Not all are serene landscapes
14 volcanic clusters in China have erupted
(Active volcanic clusters in China and their last eruption dates, mapped by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
We can glimpse traces of volcanic hazards in China
from modern volcanic disasters
The 2018 Hawaii volcanic eruption
typically only destroyed farmland, buildings, and roads
(Scenes from the 2018 Hawaii volcanic eruption, image credit @VCG)
Similar scenes once occurred in China
The Jingpo Lake volcanic cluster erupted over a thousand years ago
Thin, highly fluid lava flowed everywhere
Blocking the Mudan River to form Jingpo Lake
(Lava plains in Shalan Town, Mudanjiang City, Heilongjiang—remnants of the lava that blocked the Mudan River to create Jingpo Lake, image credit @VCG)
They not only harm human respiratory systems
but also severely damage economies and the environment
The 2010 eruption of Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano
blanketed much of Europe in volcanic ash
(Scenes from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano eruption, image credit @VCG)
Similar scenes also once appeared in China
Historical records document extensive "rain dust" events in Korea and Japan
(Ash column from the eruption of Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, for illustrative purposes only, image credit @ Visual China Group)
The deadliest hazard is pyroclastic flow
Often occurs in volcanoes with viscous magma
High-temperature debris rapidly cascades down slopes
Like a scorching "avalanche"
(Pyroclastic flow descending Sinabung Volcano in Indonesia; ancient Roman cities Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried by such flows, image credit @ Visual China Group)
2018 eruption of Guatemala's Fuego Volcano
Pyroclastic flows instantly buried several villages
Over 100 deaths and 300+ missing
(Villages buried after Fuego Volcano's June 2018 eruption; many were baked alive inside homes, image credit @ Visual China Group)
Similar scenarios have occurred in China
Changbai Mountain in Jilin experienced a "millennium eruption"
One of the largest volcanic eruptions in human history
Massive pyroclastic flows extended northward for tens of kilometers
(Hazard zoning of Tianchi Volcano's pyroclastic flows; dashed line shows 946 AD eruption range; colored blocks indicate potential impact areas for future eruptions of varying scales, map by Chen Zhihao)
Taiwan's Datun Volcano Group poses greater risks
Not only because it can generate pyroclastic flows
But also due to its proximity to densely populated metropolises
(Taipei City is surrounded by Datun Volcano Group to the north and Guanyinshan Volcano Group to the west; the former is active with pyroclastic flow risks, foreground shows Taipei 101 skyscraper, photo by Luo Yancheng)
Within a 5km radius around Qixing Mountain, the main peak of the Datun Volcano Group
Hundreds of thousands of people reside in Taipei City and New Taipei City
The consequences of a large-scale eruption are unpredictable
(Schematic diagram of volcanic eruption hazards at Qixing Mountain, Datun Volcano Group, Taiwan, based on the scale of the last eruption, but future eruptions may differ in scale. Map by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)
Rainwater converging on the surface flows unimpeded
Carrying massive debris in turbulent flows
(Lahar disaster after the eruption of Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, image credit @ Visual China Group)
Volcanoes can also trigger tsunami disasters
At the end of 2018, the Krakatoa volcanic island erupted
Its predecessor caused a mega-tsunami in 1883
Killing over 36,000 people along the Indian Ocean coast
(Scene of the 2018 Krakatoa eruption, which obliterated half the volcanic island, image credit @ Visual China Group)
Similar scenarios could occur in China
Guishan Island off the coast of Yilan, Taiwan, is an active volcano
It may erupt violently like Krakatoa in the future
Bringing tsunami hazards to coastal towns
(Guishan Island off Yilan, Taiwan, named for its turtle-like shape, image credit @ Visual China Group)
A ticking bomb for modern Chinese people
But its ancient eruptions have long been forgotten
People have grown accustomed to these volcanoes' silence
People live on the vast grasslands surrounding active volcanoes
(Please view horizontally, herds of cattle at the foot of Zhanzishan Mountain in Dalinuoer, Inner Mongolia. The Dalinuoer volcanic group may have been active within the last 10,000 years. Photographer: Gu Chaoying)
In the fertile forests at the foot of active volcanoes
(Forests beneath Changbai Mountain, Photographer: Yan Hai)
On the fertile fields around active volcanoes
(Please view horizontally, villages and towns around the Tengchong volcanic group in Yunnan, Photographer: A Shi)
(Mining pits in the Ulanhad volcanic group of Inner Mongolia. Some lava has industrial and agricultural value and is often exploited. Photographer: DENNYIMAGE)
(Heilongjiang's Wudalianchi Yaoquan Mountain formed about 1 million years ago. The Zhongling Temple in the crater was built in 1928. Image source: Visual China Group)
(Scientists collecting samples deep inside an active volcanic crater. Image source: Visual China Group)
Micro-earthquakes, rising ground temperatures, surface deformation, gas emissions
And changes in gravitational, magnetic, and electrical characteristics of the earth
Data is collected by establishing monitoring networks
(Scientists deploying volcanic monitoring equipment in Hawaii. Image source: U.S. Geological Survey)
China's established volcano monitoring networks cover
Changbai Mountain, Longgang, Wudalianchi, Jingpohu
Tengchong, Qiongbei, Datun, and Guishan Island volcanic groups
The scale of this network continues to expand
(Qixingshan Xiaoyoukeng in Taiwan's Datun volcanic group, a fumarole of Qixingshan under close monitoring. Image source: Visual China Group)
China will implement comprehensive monitoring of all active volcanoes
To safeguard the people living around them
(Waterfall downstream of Jingpo Lake in Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang, image source @ Visual China)
Our understanding of these unfamiliar landforms
Gives people the opportunity to recognize their appearance and distribution
(Village and herders at the foot of Gelaoshan in the Datong Volcanic Cluster, Shanxi, photographer @ Huang Xuefeng)
And also to understand their birth and demise
As well as the wonders created by this geological transformation
(Xiqiao Mountain in Foshan, Guangdong, an ancient volcano formed by an eruption 46 million years ago, photographer @ Lu Wen)
No longer blindly fearing everything about volcanoes
(Volcano No. 7 in the Ulanhad Volcano Cluster, Inner Mongolia, photographer @ Shehu)
Also gives people the chance to foresee future risks
Enabling a more harmonious coexistence with volcanoes
(Aerial view of the Datong Volcanic Cluster, Shanxi, photographer @ Huang Xuefeng)
Perhaps unfamiliar and dangerous landscapes
Are merely spectacular scenery familiar to people
Cover photographer | Li Wenbo, photographed at the Ulanhad Volcano in Inner Mongolia
Main references for this article can be viewed by scrolling
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