Who Reigns as China's Volcano King?

A volcanic eruption without any warning

(Satellite image of the Tonga volcanic eruption. Changbai Mountain may experience a similarly massive eruption in the future. Image source: @NASA)

Are there similar dangers lurking around us?

A long-dormant supervolcano suddenly awakens

(A distant view of Changbai Mountain today, photographer: Piao Longguo)

This was the largest volcanic eruption recorded in Changbai Mountain's history

and the largest volcanic eruption in China in nearly 10,000 years

as well as one of the largest globally in the past 2,000 years

(Please view horizontally, aerial photo of Changbai Mountain, image source: @VCG)

(The following text comes from the Japanese historical record "Kōfukuji Nendaiki." Due to wind direction and political divisions, no written records exist in Chinese historical documents.)

"On the night of October 7th, white ash scattered like snow."

(Please view horizontally, map showing the extent of volcanic ash from Changbai Mountain's 946 eruption. This eruption is also referred to as the "Millennium Eruption" in academia. Map by Chen Zhihao/Planet Institute)

Such eruptions have occurred in Changbai Mountain's history

What kind of volcano is Changbai Mountain?

Let us first focus deep underground

The Pacific Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate

and stalls at a depth of about 600 kilometers

Water lowers the melting point of surrounding rocks

(Please view horizontally, diagram of plate subduction and the origin of Changbai Mountain's magma. Map by Wang Shenwen/Planet Institute)

(Diagram of magma movement and magma chamber formation. Map by Yang Ning/Planet Institute)

This vast magma system is highly active

Triggering frequent volcanic activities

Emerging in the southeastern part of today's Jilin Province

(Distribution map of Changbai Mountain and Cenozoic volcanic areas in Northeast China; the Cenozoic era spans from 65 million years ago to the present, mapped by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)

Due to the ever-changing properties of magma

With high temperature, low viscosity, and good fluidity

(Lava fountain and flow during the 2021 eruption of Geldingadalir Volcano in Iceland, a typical low-viscosity magma eruption scenario, for reference only, image source@VCG)

Lava flows and accumulates across vast areas

Centered roughly around Changbai Mountain

Covering an area of approximately 12,000 square kilometers

(Map of the lava plateau range in the Changbai Mountain region; the terrain shown is current, not as it was when first formed, for illustrative purposes only, mapped by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)

Revealing the unique landscape of ancient lava plateaus

(Basalt columnar joints at Wangtian'e Shiwudaogou, geological formations on ancient lava plateaus, photographer@Cui Hanyu)

Leading to the incorporation of new chemical components into the magma

Some high-melting-point minerals also crystallize and separate first

(Schematic of magma evolution in a magma chamber; in reality, these processes often occur simultaneously without a strict sequence, mapped by Wang Shenwen/Planet Research Institute)

On the already formed lava plateaus

Producing large amounts of volcanic ash, volcanic bombs, and more

(Strombolian eruption of Mount Etna in Sicily, Italy, in February 2022, for reference only; materials falling around the crater are collectively called pyroclasts, image source@VCG)

Occurring approximately 3 million and 2 million years ago, respectively

Two neighboring volcanoes of Changbai Mountain began to form successively

Wangtian'e Volcano and Paotai Mountain Volcano

(Distribution of the main volcanoes in the Changbai Mountain volcanic group. Wangtian'e Volcano is located in China, Paotai Mountain Volcano is in North Korea, while Changbai Mountain is shared by both countries. Map by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)

Began to truly emerge in the long river of history

(Schematic diagram of the formation of Changbai Mountain's volcanic cone. Map by Wang Shenwen/Planet Research Institute)

The towering volcanic cone of Changbai Mountain largely took shape

It likely resembled a conical volcano more akin to Mount Fuji

Its summit elevation exceeded 3,000 meters

With a relative height of at least 2,500 meters

Even today, it would tower over all other volcanoes in China

(Japan's Mount Fuji exhibits a typical conical shape. Image source: Visual China Group)

But this scene did not last long

The magma beneath Changbai Mountain had become

Like a cork blocking the passage below the crater

The "pressure cooker" exceeded its limit

(The 2015 eruption of Chile's Calbuco Volcano, with ash reaching 20 km high, was a Plinian-type eruption. For illustration only—Changbai Mountain's historical super-eruptions were far larger. Image source: Visual China Group)

Gas propelled magma into the sky

Along with other high-temperature debris and gases

Massive amounts of debris fell back to the surface from high altitude

(Tianwen Peak on the north side of Changbai Mountain's Tianchi. The yellowish-gray slopes consist of pumice deposited after ancient super-eruptions, mixed with black lava fragments. Photographer: Qiu Huining)

(When Indonesia's Mount Sinabung erupted, note the pyroclastic flow surging down the gully at the lower right—merely illustrative. The scale of the pyroclastic flow from Changbai Mountain's 946 AD eruption was far larger. Image credit @ Visual China Group)

Even today, we can still observe

thick rock layers composed of volcanic debris in some valleys of Changbai Mountain

(Ancient pyroclastic strata on both sides of Jinjiang Grand Canyon in Changbai Mountain, photographer @ Zhai Dongrun)

Smoldering in volcanic ash at several hundred degrees Celsius

(Carbonized wood site on the southern slope of Changbai Mountain, photographer @ Piao Longguo)

In the most recent tens of thousands of years of Changbai Mountain's history

The massive weight of the mountain lost its support

Rocks around the crater gradually collapsed

Slowly forming a giant caldera

(Illustration of crater lake formation. Changbai Mountain's Tianchi is a crater lake, designed by @ Wang Shenwen/Planet Research Institute)

The "Millennium Eruption" of 946 AD

Was Changbai Mountain's most recent super-eruption

Its volcanic plume reached about 25 kilometers high

Affecting an area of nearly 2,430 square kilometers

While the floodwaters from Tianchi's outburst

(Map of Changbai Mountain's pyroclastic flow hazard range, designed by @ Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)

Changbai Mountain experienced several smaller eruptions afterward

Its once-over-3,000-meter conical summit vanished

Transforming into 16 peaks around 2,700 meters tall

(Schematic diagram of the 16 peaks of Changbai Mountain, with peak names assigned by Liu Jianfeng of the Qing Dynasty in 1908; some peak names have since changed, e.g., Huagai Peak is now called Tianwen Peak, mapped by Chen Zhihao/Planet Research Institute)

making Changbai Mountain China's "King of Volcanoes"

and also the highest mountain in Northeast China

allowing water vapor to condense as it rises

(Please view horizontally, clouds over Changbai Mountain's summit, photographer: Zhuo Yongsheng)

The average annual precipitation here is about 1,000 mm

reaching up to 1,300 mm at the summit

comparable to many regions south of the Yangtze River

making it one of the wettest areas in Northeast China

(Annual precipitation distribution in Jilin Province, mapped by Zhang Wei/Planet Research Institute)

Additionally, Changbai Mountain lies at 42°N latitude

where water vapor quickly freezes into tiny ice crystals

resulting in powdery snow on Changbai Mountain

(Snow accumulation at Wangtian'e Scenic Area of Changbai Mountain, image source: VCG)

persisting from October to June each year

(Snow-covered Changbai Mountain, photographer: Piao Longguo)

while also providing a continuous supply of moisture

adding a touch of magic to Changbai Mountain

(Rime at Changbai Mountain's "Magic World" Scenic Area, photographer: Wang Zhichao)

stretching about 4,400 meters north-south and 3,370 meters east-west

With an average depth of 204 meters and a maximum depth of 373 meters

A massive lake holding approximately 2 billion tons of water

It is the largest volcanic crater lake in China

(Comparison of water body characteristics between Tianchi and some famous lakes in China, chart by @Wang Shenwen/Planet Institute)

(Landscape of the outlet of Changbai Mountain Tianchi, image source @VCG)

It flows only 1,250 meters before encountering a cliff

(Autumn scenery of Changbai Mountain Waterfall, photographer @Liu Zhaoming)

(The Changbai Waterfall continues to flow even in winter, photographer @Ren Lin)

(Erdaobaihe Canyon, photographer @Fu Mingze)

(Watershed map of the Changbai Mountain region, showing only the Yalu River Basin, Tumen River Basin, and the Heilongjiang Basin including the Songhua River, chart by @Zhang Wei/Planet Institute)

Benefiting from its elevation and advantageous coastal proximity

Numerous main streams and tributaries intertwine to form a dense water network

Covering a vast area while also creating

(Luyuantan Pool in Changbai Mountain, photographer @Wang Zhichao)

Purified after filtering through volcanic rock layers

Abundant mineral elements such as silicon, calcium, sodium, and magnesium

Forming high-quality metasilicic acid mineral water

(Bingshuiquan Spring in Changbai Mountain, photographer @Shao Zixuan)

Softening the appearance of this volcano

(Ancient lava flows on the northern slope of Changbai Mountain, formed at least 5,000 years ago, with the winding mountain road appearing slender in contrast, photographer @Xian Yunqiang)

Highly conducive to the growth of plant roots

Breezes and birds carry the seeds of trees

Tall trees take root and grow in the volcanic ash

Without the involvement of pioneer vegetation like lichens and mosses

(La Palma Volcano, Spain: Forests rapidly recovered on volcanic ash from ancient eruptions, a phenomenon only observed in areas extensively covered by ash. For rock formations from cooled lava, lichens and mosses are still needed to first transform the rock into soil. For reference only, image source @ Visual China)

Flowing water dissolves the abundant minerals in the volcanic ash

Thus, in the barren lands covered by volcanic ash

(On both sides of Jinjiang Grand Canyon on the western slope of Changbai Mountain, ancient super-eruption volcanic ash layers are exposed, with forests thriving on the ash. Photographer @ Shao Zixuan)

Dead branches and leaves accelerate the transformation of volcanic ash

Making it difficult for microorganisms to fully decompose them

Complex physical and chemical reactions occur

On the other hand, continuously altering the texture of the volcanic ash

Forming looser, more breathable, and water-permeable soil

(Underground Forest on the northern slope of Changbai Mountain, growing in valleys devastated by volcanic ash. Photographer @ Qiao Li)

Eventually transitioning from desolate silence to vibrant life

Forming four vegetation zones at different altitudes

(A distant view of Changbai Mountain reveals changes in tree species with increasing elevation until they disappear entirely. Photographer @ Lu Yuchun)

Korean pine, sand pine, white birch, and others are widely distributed here

(Mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest. Photographer @ Shao Zixuan)

At an altitude of 1100-1800 meters

Spruces, firs, and yeddo spruces dominate here

(Dark coniferous forest, photographer: Piao Longguo)

At elevations of 1800-2100 meters

Average annual wind speed: 6-8 m/s

Days with gale-force winds (≥8级) can exceed 200 per year

(Erman's birch forest; the Changbai Mountains host China's most extensive stands, photographer: Li Xingzhi)

Such as summit areas above 2400 meters

Days with gale-force winds (≥8级) can exceed 280 per year

Dwarf shrubs and moss-lichen become the dominant vegetation

(Please view horizontally: Tianchi Lake with tundra flowers, photographer: Song Yanwen)

Also nurturing numerous endemic and rare species

(Pinus sylvestris var. sylvestriformis, aka "beauty pine"; formerly a Class I protected wild plant, downgraded to Class II in September 2021 due to effective conservation and rapid population recovery, photographer: Shao Zixuan)

Lush vegetation also attracts wildlife

Providing diverse habitats

(Hazel grouse, photographer: Piao Longguo)

(Sika deer, photographed in Changbai Mountains, photographer: Gao Pengfei)

(Chinese merganser, photographer: Feng Jiang)

(Amur tiger, photographed at Hengdaohezi Amur Tiger Park for illustration; wild Amur tigers once roamed Changbai Mountains widely but now only inhabit the Laoyeling range, their last Chinese stronghold where the Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park was established, photographer: Li Lu)

Higher elevations with colder climates

Their plump, furry appearances radiate warmth

(Sable, photographer @ Sun Xiaohong)

Another example is the birch forest zone and alpine tundra zone

(Alpine pika, photographer @ Wang Zhichao)

Making the ecology of Changbai Mountain even more vibrant

The Changbai Mountain Protection and Development Zone has 2,277 species of wild plants

Including 1,727 species of higher plants

Accounting for over 70% of those in Northeast China

Among them are rare species rarely seen

(Illustration of some rare animals in the Changbai Mountain Protection and Development Zone, photographed in Changbai Mountain: sika deer, sable, Chinese merganser, black bear, brown bear, otter, red deer, sparrowhawk, goshawk; the rest are illustrations, designed by @ Luo Zihan/Planet Research Institute, photographers @ Li Lu, Piao Longguo, Cheng Bin, Feng Jiang, Liu Lu, Xingzhi-Nature Image China, Xi Zhinong-Wild China, Xie Zhenqing, Shang Rui, Xu Yongchun)

Making the Changbai Mountain range, with Changbai Mountain as its main peak

(Tomb cluster below Wandu Mountain City, Wandu Mountain City is one of the most typical early and mid-period mountain cities of the Goguryeo era, located in Ji'an City, Tonghua City, Jilin Province, on Wandu Mountain in the Changbai Mountain range, photographer @ Sun Hongguo)

Even regarded the Changbai Mountain range as the "dragon vein"

Elevating its status to an unprecedented level during the Qing Dynasty

The Qing rulers implemented a policy of sealing off Changbai Mountain

Also causing Changbai Mountain to maintain

A relatively pristine natural landscape for a long historical period

To build a nation recovering from devastation

Including the forested areas of Changbai Mountain in Northeast China

People realized the importance of protecting Changbai Mountain's unique ecosystem

And established the Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve in 1960

Preserve a relatively pristine Changbai Mountain

(The Changbai Mountain and Baekdu Mountain Biosphere Reserves were approved to join the UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve Network in 1979 and 1989, respectively. Map by Zhang Wei/Planet Research Institute)

In return, Changbai Mountain boasts a unique landscape unlike any other

(Heavenly Lake and lakeside flowers, photographer: Chang Jianru)

(Julong Hot Springs and tourists on the northern slope of Changbai Mountain, photographer: Hu Yingbiao)

(Please view horizontally, autumn forests of Changbai Mountain, photographer: Fu Mingze)

Embrace the most pristine snow of this mountain

(Please view horizontally, winter scenery of Changbai Mountain, photographer: Ren Lin)

The breathtaking scenery of Changbai Mountain leaves visitors enchanted

To monitor the future eruption risks of Changbai Mountain

The Changbai Mountain Volcano Monitoring Station was established

And monitoring equipment and capabilities have been continuously improved

Allowing scientists to listen to the "pulse" deep within Changbai Mountain

And formulate disaster prevention and mitigation strategies for potential eruptions

(Schematic of the Changbai Mountain monitoring network, map by Zhang Wei/Planet Research Institute)

During 2002-2005

Microearthquakes in Changbai Mountain became increasingly frequent

Even the temperature of hot springs rose

These are signs of renewed magma activity underground

(Julong Hot Springs on the northern slope of Changbai Mountain, where monitors regularly test spring temperatures, photographer: Zhang Yang)

Although Changbai Mountain eventually returned to tranquility thereafter

It once again revealed the primordial forces from the depths of the Earth

(Scenes of Changbai Mountain in early winter, photographer @ Ren Jia See)

Only by strengthening research and monitoring of Changbai Mountain

Can we reduce the unease and fear in the face of the unknown

And gain more composure when confronting disasters

While minimizing the losses caused by volcanic eruptions

(On October 30, 2021, houses and villages buried by volcanic ash after the eruption of La Palma Volcano in Spain, for illustration only, image source @ Visual China)

This towering active volcano in China

This northeastern water tower nurturing countless lives

This magnificent mountain with breathtaking landscapes

Extreme danger has created extreme beauty

(Please view horizontally, overlooking Changbai Mountain, photographer @ Zhuo Yongsheng)

Written by: Shanyuelou Edited by: Yunwu Kongcheng, Director

Images: Pan Chenxia Maps: Chen Zhihao, Zhang Wei

Design: Wang Shenwen, Luo Zihan, Yang Ning

Reviewers: Yunwu Kongcheng, Zuokou, Quasimodo by the River, Chen Jingyi

Header and cover photographer: Ren Jia See

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